m

EXPERIMENT
NO. 1.1

indicator:
p a p e r / u n i v e r s a l

samples
usingpH solution
AIM NaOH
following Dilute

Finding the
pHofthe (b)
(d) Lemon juice solution.
hydrochloric
acid carbonate
hydrogen
(a) Dilute ethanoic acidsolution )Dilute
Dilute
(c)
(e) Water
hydroxide (NaOH)
CHEMICALS REQUIRED
2.Dilute sodium
acid (HCI)
4. Lemon juice
hydrochloric carbonate
hydrogen
1. Dilute ethanoic acidi(CH,COOH) 6. Dilute
3. Dilute
water (H,O)
5. Distilled
chart
pH colour
APPARATUS REQUIRED 2. Standard
4. Glazed tile
1. Strips of pH paper Test tube
stand
6.
3. Dropper
tubes
5. Six test

THEORY
solution.
material in aqueous
1. pH Value
basic or neutral nature of a concentration
indicate the acidic, the hydrogen ion
1. pH is used to Sorensen to indicate
concept of pH value was put forward by
The
2. aqueous concentration
solution.
negative of log base 10 of hydrogen ion
equal to the
3. pH of a solution is pH=-log10 [H]

2. pH Scale different materials find t

which starts from 0and ends at 14 on which
Sorensen devised a pH scale
basicity.
increasing order of
place in decreasing order of acidity or in 10-12 1013 10-14
107 10 10-9 10 10 10-11

[H,o'10 10 10 10 10 1o 106

Increasing basic character

Increasing acidic character

Decrease in OH ion Increase in OH ion

3 10 11 12 13 44
pH 0
Increase in H ion concentration Neutral Decrease in H ion concentration

Range of pH and [H,0].

24
 W e a k A c i d
Neutral
5
6 7
Strong Base
9
4 10
StrongAcid 3 11
13
14
 25
XPERIMENTS
DAGRAM
Dilute
Lemon
HCI NaOH Ethanoic
acid juice
Water nyte
carb

B C D

Dropper
Drop of sample

Strip of pH paper

Experimental steps to measure the pH of different samples.

PROCEDURE

them 1 to 6.
1. Take 6strips of pH paper and place them on a glazed tile. Mark
adding A, B, C, D, E and F
2. Take the test solutions in separate test tube. Dissolve the solid substance by
distilled water to it. Label the test tubes accordingly.
fine dropper.
3. Now, place a drop of the test solution on one of the strip of pH paper with the help of a
Use afresh dropper for each test solution. shades of the standard
4. Afterthat observe the colour produced and match it with the different colour
colour pH chart and note down the pH and respective colour.
5. In same way find out the pH value for remaining samples using fresh strip of pH paper and clean dropper
for every sample.
DBSERVATION AND INFERENCE

S. No. Sample solution Colour produced Approxinate Inference

on pH paper pH
1 Dilute HCI
2 Dilute NaOH
3 Dilute Ethanoic acid
4 Lemon juice
5 Water
6
Dilute hydrogen carbonate solution
ESULT
From the observation, it is found that
I. dilute HCI is highly acidic, because pH =1
dilute NaOH is highly basic, because pH= 13
3. dilute ethanoicis acidic, because pi =3
4. lemon juice is acidic, because
5. water is pi =2
neutral is nature, because pH=7
6. dilute hydrogen carbonate is basic, because pH =9
26
PPACTIASE.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Use only the standard colour chart supplied with the pH paper for assessing the pH value.
2. Keep the pH strips away from chemical fumes.
3. Use a fresh fine dropper.
4. Donot touch the pH paper with dirty and wet hands.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The pH is likely to be wrong, if
1. the test tubes are cleaned with tap water.
2. tap water is used for preparing solutions.
3. the dropper is not rinsed/washed properly.
4. quality of pH paper is not good.
 EXPERIMENT N0. 2

AIM

Performing and observing the following reactions and classify them into:
la) Combination reaction (6) Decomposition reaction
() Displacement reaction (a) Double displacement reaction
quicklime
(à Action of water on
Action of heat on ferrOus sulphate crystals
sulphate solution
(i) Iron nails kept im cOpper
Reaction between
sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions.
(e)

new
T H E O R Y

to produce new substances with

in which a substance or substances undergo change oxide (lime)
1. The processes
when calcium carbonate is heated, calcium
For example,
are.known as
chemical reactions,
oxide and carbon dioxide
properties
decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium
Parbon dioxide are formed. The into new substances.
reaction because calcium carbonate changes making of
all. It involves breaking and
chemical

is, thus, a element do not change at

chemical reaction the atoms of an
2 In a substances.
to give new
bonds between atoms into following types:
reactions. Chemical reactions can be classified
2Types of chemical
compounds or elements combine to
give asingle
this type of reaction,two
(0Combination reaction. In
product. For example:

CaO(s) + H,00) Ca(OH), (aq)

Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Slaked lime)
(Quicklime)
decomposes into two or more new
reaction. In this type of reaction,
a single substance
() Decomposition
Substances. For example:
Heat
Fe,O, (s) + SO, (g) SO, (g)
2FeSO, (s) Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur trioxide
Ferrous sulphate
atom or group
type of reaction, one atom or group displaces another
this
(ii) Displacement reaction. In
from acompound. For example :
CuSO, (a4) FeSO,(aq) + Cu(s)
Fe(s)
Iron
+ Copper sulphate
Ferrous sulphate Copper
exchange of ions or groups between
Double displacement reaction. In
this type of reaction, there is an
(0)
two compounds. For example :
BaSO,(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
BaCl,(aq)
Na,SO, (aq) + Barium Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
dhloride
Sodium sulphate
4. Reactiorns may also be classified into :
()Oxidation and reduction reactions
(ü) Endothermic and exothermic reactions
(n) Reversible and irreversible reactions
(o) Slow and fast reactions.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2A

AIM

Toperform and observe the action of water on quicklime and classify the reaction.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED
1.Solid calcium oxide (quicklime) 2. Distilled water

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Beaker

THEORY
1. When distilled water is added slowly to a beaker containing
asmall amount of CaO,the
hot. This reaction may be represented in the form of a chemical
reaction as follows : beaker become
CaO(s) + H,0() Ca(OH),(aq)
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide 1
(Quicklime) (Slaked lime)
2. In this reaction two compounds CaO and
example of combination reaction. Hence it H,O combine to give Ca(OH), a single product. This is
may be stated that when two or more
to form a single product, the reaction is called substancels) comhi
3. It has been observed that a large combination reaction.
are termed exothermic reactions.amount of heat is evolved in course of reaction, such type of reactions
PROCEDURE
1. Take some amount of solid
quicklime in a beaker. -Beaker
2. Pour water over the quicklime in
the beaker slowly.
3. Touch the surface of the beaker.
4. Observe carefully.
-Water
OBSERVATION
-Calcium
Quicklime reacts with water vigourously oxide
amount of heat during the course with evolution of a large
of the reaction. Reaction between CaO and H,0.
INFERENCE AND RESULT
1. In this reaction two compounds
2. This is an example of quick lime and water combine to give
combination reaction. slaked lime, a single proaue.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The reaction is highly
exothermic hence do not touch reaction
2. Use good quality of mixture directly.
3. Use small amount of
glassware.
solid calcium oxide.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2B

reaction.
AIM crystals and classifythe
Toperform
and observe the action of heat on ferrous sulphate
CHEMICALS REQUIRED

crystals 2. Blue litmus paper.

1. Ferrous sulphate
APPARATUS REQUIRED

holder 2. Test tubes

1. Test tube
3. Boiling tube 4. Burner

THEORY

()Ferrous sulphate is a crystalline solid (FeSO,7H,0). and then decomposes.

(i) When heated strongly it looses the water of crystallization
The reaction may be represented as
heat
FeSO,7H,0s) FeSO,(s) + 7H,0
heat
2FeSO4(s) ’ Fe,O3(s) + SO,(3) + SO3(8)
Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide Sulphur tridioxide
Ferrous sulphate Colourless)
(Light green) (Brown) (olourless)
decomposed into three parts. This type
(iü) In the above stated reaction a single substance FeSO,(s) has been
of reaction is called decomposition reaction.

PROCEDURE

1. Take about 2 g ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube.

2. Note the colour of the ferrous sulphate crystals.
3. Heat the boiling tube.
4. Observe the colour of the crystals after heating.
5. Smell the gas evolved.
6. Bring a wet blue litmus paper near the mouth of the boiling tube.
OBSERVATION
1. When ferrous sulphate crystals are heated their colour change from light green to brown.
2. Agas with smell of burning sulphur is evolved.
3. The gas turns wet blue litmus paper red.
NFERENCE AND RESULT
1. When heated, ferrous sulphate crystals are decomposed to yield Ferric oxide, sulphur dioxide and sulphu
trioxide.
2. This type of reaction is called decomposition reaction.
RECAUTIONS
1. Use good quality of boiling tube.
<. Keep the mouth of the boiling tube away from you and your classmates.
41
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2C

AIM copper sulphate solution and classify the

of iron nails kept in
10perform and
obserpe the reaction
reactio
CHEMICALS REQUIRED sulphate solution
2. Copper
1. Iron nails
3. Concentrated H,SO,
APPARATUS REQUIRED 2. Sand paper.
1. Test tubes
Test tube stand

aqueous solution of a
THEORY
When iron iS added to an copper sulphate,
than copper.
Iron is more reactive
displaces copper as follows: FeSO, (aq) + Cu(s)
Fe(s) + CuSO,(ag)
Ferrous sulphate Copper
Copper sulphate (Reddish brown)
Iron (Light greern)
(Gray) (Blue)
(ag) Fe(aq) + Cu(s)
Fe(s) + Cu*
(Blue) (Light green) Copper
Iron

the solution which was originally sky

blue in colour, turns light green
displacement reaction,
Due to this reddish brown layer of
copper.
covered with a
and the iron article is

PROCEDURE
shining.
clean with asand paper to make them
1. Take two iron nails and rub them
test tubes. Add few drops of concentrated Izos
2. Take 10 m of copper sulphate solutions in two separate
to make clear solution.
completely immersed. Keep other iron nail and
3. Place one of the iron nails in one test tube
comparison.
containing copper sulphate solution for
2
1
Dilute copper
sulphate solution

Iron
nail

After few minutes nail

gets coroded

Reaction of iron nail with copper sulphate solution in water.

42
 43
EXPERIMENTS

test tube containing iron nail in copper sulphate solution for about 40 minutes.
nail in
4. Keep the
observations
55.Record your
D8SERVATION

Experiment Observation Inference

S Na.
solution. Sky blue The solution contains Cuz* ions.
Note the original colour of the The nail has the natural colour of iron.
1.
Note the original colour
of the nail. Steel grey
2. solution after the Light green The solution contains Fe2+ ions.
Note the colour of the
3. experiment.

Note the colour of the nail after the experi Reddish brown The iron nail is covered by a thin layer of
4. copper.
ment.

ECAUTIONS

1. Clean the iron nail well by rubbing it with a sand paper.

the solution of copper sulphate in water is not clear, add a few drops of conc. H,SO, to make it clear.
2.If
copper sulphate solution should not be
3.During the experiment, the test tube 1containing iron nail and
disturbed.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2D

barium
chloride solutions and
between
sodium
sulphate
and
classif
AIM reaction
observe the
perform and
10 sulphate
the reaction. of
sodium

solution
Aqueous
CHEMICALS REQUIRED
chloride
2.
of barium
solution
Aqueous
1.
2. Beaker
APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Test tubes
NaCl and a white precipitate of BasO,
solution of
solution we get 2NaCl(ag)
THEORY
solution to BaCl, BaSO,(s) + Sodium chloride
Na,SO, sulphate
mixing
On BaCl,(ag) Barium
Na,SO (aq) + Barium chloride reaction.
sulphate
Sodium displacement

example of double
reaction is an
This
Take an equal volume o
PROCEDURE

in one test tube.

test tubes. chloride
clean two
1. Wash and of barium
solution
aqueous
5 mnL of an tube.
2. Take about solution in
another test
sulphate
sodium
beaker.
mL beaker. solution in the
3. Take a 50 sodium sulphate notebook.
chloride solution to the observation in the
your
4. Add barium formed and record
the precipitate so
of
5. Note the colour
precipitate is formed.
OBSERVATION
chloride are mixed a white
solutions of sodium sulphate
and barium
When the
INFERENCE AND RESULT
sulphate.
sodium sulphate react to give white ppt. of barium
1.Bariun chloride and
BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Na,SO4
BaCl, (aq) +Sodium sulphate Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
Barium chloride
(White ppt)

2. This is a double displacement reaction.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Clean the apparatus thoroughly before the experiment.

2. Use equal volumes of barium chloride and sodium sulphate solutions.
 ÉXPERIMENT NO. 3
A/M
i) Observing the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
()Zns0,(aq) (ii) FeSO,(aq)
(i) CuSO, (aq) (iv) Al,(SO),(aq)
Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al netals in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above results.
(b)
HEMICALS REQUIRED

and iron metals

1. Strips of zinc, copper, magnesium
21Msolution of CusO4, FesO, ZnSO, and Al,(SO,),
PARATUS REQUIRED

beakers. 2. Sand paper.

1. Sixteen 100mL
EORY

more reactive than others. The metals which can lose electrons more readily to form positive
1. Some metals are metals do not lose electrons easilv.
ions gre more reactive. The less reactive
used to find out the relative reactivity
of metals.
2. Displacement reactions can be
solution. For example, Zn metal piece displaces
metal fromits salt
3 Amore reactive metal displaces a less reactive
sulphate (CuSO,) solution.
Cu (metal) from its copper ’ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO4(a4) Zinc sulphate Copper
Zinc Copper sulphate (colourless) (Reddish brown)
(blue)
solution, no reaction takes place.
So, zinc metal is more
is added to Zns0,
If apiece of copper metal
reactive than copper.
series series
4. Reactivity or Activity decreasing order of their reactivities is called reactivity or activity
The arrangement of metals in the
of metals.
Activity series of metals
K Most reactive
1. Potassium
2. Calcium Ca
3. Sodium Na
4. Magnesium Mg
5. Aluminium Al
6. Zinc Zn
7. Iron Fe
8. Nickel Ni
9. Tin Sn
10. Lead Pb

Hydrogen (non metal)

11. Copper Cu
12. Silver Ag
Au Least reactive
13. Gold

49
50

5. Reactivity (comparative)
If metal Xreplaces metal
can be found
Yfromits
out
solution
by the following criteria :
PRACTICALSCE
than Y
() Metal Xis more reactive
reactive than X there may occur
Or (7) Metal Y is less metalfrom
its solution
following changes:
another
6. When a metal replaces
charnge
() colour of solution may metal may change
surface of the
(") colour at the
various solutions
7. Original colours of Calour
Solution
S. Ne Colourless
ZnsO,
1 Light green
2 FeSO, Blue
3. CuSO, Colourless
Al(S0,),

PROCEDURE
and label them
as zinc sulphate, copper sulphate, aluminium
1. Select four
clean 100 mL
beakers
sulphate
and ferrous sulphate. and FeSO, in the labelled beaker
solution of ZnSO,, CuSO, Al,(SO), respectively.
2. Add 20 mL of1M help of a piece of sand paper. Cut it into small
pieces of suitable
metal with the
3. Clean a strip of zinc
CusO Al,(SO), and FeSO, (See Fig.).
into each beaker containing
size. Add 2 pieces place. After about an hour, note the change in colour of
beakers and place them at a safe
4. Cover the of metal surface or any
other change.
solutions, appearance
procedure by adding
5. Repeat the similar CuSO, solution.
Al,(SO) FeSO,and
(a) copper strips to ZnSO, and Al,(SO), solution.
(b) Alstrips to ZnSO, CuSO, FeSO, and FeSO, solution.
Al,(SO,
(c) iron strips to ZnSO, CusO,
Record your observation.

CuSO4 AI,(SO) FeSO,

ZnSO,

Zinc strips Zinc strips Zinc strips Zinc strips

100mL beakers with 20 ml solution of 1M ZnSO,, CuSO,, AI,(SO,),

and FeS0, solution added with zinc strips (equal no.) in each beaker.
EPERIMENTS 51
OBSERVATION
your
observation in atable as given below.
Record

Salt solution in Colour change

which added
Change in the Inference
M e t a l

of solution appearance of
metal surface
. Zinc
CuSO, Blue colour of CuSO, disappears, Zn can displace Cu from
red-brown particles settle down Changes its salt solution (CuSO,).
at the bottom of the
beaker.
Zn +CuS0,
(Blue)
ZnSO, +_Cu
(Colourless) (Reddish
brown)
AL,(SO), Solution remains colourless.
No change Zn cannot displace Al from
FeSO, Green colour of ferrous sulphate its salt solution Al,(S0)
Changes Zn can displace Fe from
disappears. its salt solution (FeSO).
Zn
ZnSO, No change No change No reaction
2 Copper

Cu
ZnSO, Nochange No change Cu is less reactive than Zn
Cu AI,(SÓ,), No change No change Cu is less reactive than Al
Cu
FeSO, No change No change Cu is less reactive than Fe
Ct CuSO, No change No change No reaction
3. A l u m i n i u m

AI ZnSO, New coat on Al metal

Changes Al is more reactive than Zn
A CuSO, Blue colour of original solution Changes Alis more reactive than Cu
fades and finally becomes
colourless.
Al FeSO, Green colour disppears and finally Changes Al is more reactive than Fe
becomes colourless
A Al;(SO), No change No change Nochange
4. Iron
Fe ZnSO, No change No change Fe is less reactive than Zn
Fe CuSO, Blue colour changes to light green Changes Fe is more reactive than Cu
Fe Al(SO,), No change No change Iron is less reactive than Al
Fe Fea0, No change No change No reaction

RESULT

1. Iron displaces copper from Cus0, solution. Thus,

) Reactivity of Fe >Reactivity of Cu
2. Zinc displaces copper and iron from their salt solutions. Thus,
(i) Reactivity of Zn >Reactivity of Cu
(i) Reactivity of Zn >Reactivity of Fe
3. Aluminium displaces Zinc from its solution. Thus,
(iv) Reactivity of Al >Reactivity of Zn
4.On the basis of above conclusions we find that the reactivity of given metals in decreasing order is as
given below:
Al> Zn > Fe > Cu
52
PRACTICAL SCIENCE y
PRECAUTIONS
1. Never touch any chemical.
2. Label the beakers properly.
3. Use saturated solutions of copper sulphate, iron sulphate, zinc sulphate and aluminium sulphate.
4. Rub the pieces of metals with sand paper, so that they are free from the metallic oxides, sticking to theit
surface.
5. Add5 cc of conc. sulphuric acid per litre to prevent hydrolysis of the solution.
6. Use only distilled water for preparing the solutions.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM
of acetic acid (ethanoic acid):
Srudy of the following properties
) odour
(i) solubility in water
(ii)effect on litmus
(iv) reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
MATERIALS REQUIRED 2. Blue litmuspaper
1. Aceticacid 4. Lime water
3.Sodium hydrogen carbonate 6. Test tubes
5. Water
7. Test tube holder

THEORY
1. Acetic acid is an organic acid with the formula CH,COOH. Its functional group is carboxylit

group so it is a monocarboxylic acid. The

(-b-OH group. Acetic acid contains only one COOH
molecule of a monocarboxylic acid(CH,COOH) is made up of () an alkyl group e.g, CH, and the carboxi
group (-COOH).

2. Physical Properties :
point 16.6°C.
() Pure glacial acetic acid has freezing
(i) It has vinegar like smell.
(iii) It is highly soluble in water.
3. Chemical properties :
() Acetic acid turns blue litmus red.
(ii) It is a weak acid and ionizes partially.
CH,COOH(aq) CH,CO0 + H+
Acetic acid Acetate Hydrogen
ion
ion

(ti) Acidic property of acetic acid is due to presence of carboxylic group (COOH).
4.Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate :
Acetic acid produces effervescence with sodium bicarbonate liberating carbon dioxide gas, whidh
turns lime water milky

NaHCO, +CH,COOHCH,COONa H,0+ CarbonCO,dioxide

+ Water
Sodium Acetic acid Sodium acetate
hydrogen
cárbonate

Ca(OH), (aq) + CO,(g) ’ CaCO;(s) +H,O(|)

Lime water Carbon dioxide Calcium Water
carbonate
90
 EXPERIMENTS 91

Cork

Test tube

-U-tube

Mixture of
acetic acid
Lime water
and sodium
bicarbonate

Reaction between acetic acid and sodium bicarbonate

gives CO, which turns lime water milky.
5. Esterification :
Aceticacid reacts with ethyl alcohol in the presence of sulphuric acid to form ethyl acetate

CH,COOH + C,H;OH CH,CO0C,H; + H,0

Acetic acid Ethyl alcohol Ethyl acetate Water

Ethyl acetate is an ester and it has a fruity smell. This reaction is called esterification.

ROCEDURE, OBSERVATION AND INFERENCE

Experiment/Procedure Observation Inference

,No.
1 Odour
Take a small amount of acetic acid in a Pungent vinegar like smell. It has an iritating pungent vinegar like smell.
test tube and smell its odour by wafting.
2 Solubility in Water
Take 2ml of water in a test tube and add Ahomogeneous solution Acetic acid is soluble in water.
2 ml of acetic acid to it and shake. is formed.

Effect of Litmus
Take a small amount of acetic acid in a Blue litmus turns red. It is acidic in nature.
test tube and dip a strip of blue litmus
Paper in it.
Reaction with Sodium Bicarbonate
(a) Take a small amnount of sodium Effervescence occurred by Acetic acid reacts with carbonates to give
bicarbonate in a test tube. Add evolution of carbon rise carbon dioxide.
sufficient amount of acetic acid to it. dioxide gas. 2CH,COOH +Na,CO,
2CH,COONa +CO, +H,0
Sodium acetate
(b) Pass the gas evolved through lime Lime water turns milky. The gas evolved in this reaction is carbon
water. dioxide.
 than

92 PRACTICAL SOENGE-
RESULT
smell.
1. Aceticacid has vinegar like
water.
2. Acetic acid is highly soluble in
litmus red.
3. Acetic acid changes blue
dioxide from sodium bicarbonate.
4. Acetic acid liberates carbon

PRECAUTIONS
1. Aceticacid should be handled with care.
2. Never smell acetic acid directly.
3. Keep the mouth of the test tube away from you and your classmates.
4. Carbon dioxide should be passed through lime water only for short duration.
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

hard water.
comparative

cleaning capacity of asample of soapin soft and

the
Study of
ATERIALS R E Q U I R E D

ofsoap 2. Tap water

1.Sample
Calcium
and magnesium chloride 4. Washable ink
3. cloth pieces of 5 x 5 cm size
white 6.Two beakers of 250 mL
Two
5.
7,Glass rod

of Soap
FHEORY

1. Cleansing Action
() Soaps
anddetergents have alarge hydrocarbon tail with negatively charged head.
(i) The hydrocarbonic taillis hydrophobic (water repelling).
(iD The negatively charge head is hydrophilic (water attracting). cluster, called micelles.
together as
(i) When a soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules gather
The tail stick inwards and the heads outwards.
the ions and not the organic part of the molecule, in the
(o) Water molecules being polar in nature, surround
solution.
Water Na
RCOO
Na" Na
R COO RCOO
Micelle

Soap molecule RCOO

Na W w Nat
RCOO
WWW Na

HA COO
Short ionic part R COO Na
Long hydrocarbon chain (water attracting end)
(water repelling end) Na' RCOO
Na"
Aggregation of RCO0- ions to
Showing soap molecule. form an ionic micelle.

tend to lift off from the dirty surface and dissociate

into fragments. As a
the oily dirt
(vi) When water is
agitated, molecules. Thus, the solution containssmall globules of oily
tails stick to oily dirt
result, the other soap molecules. The negatively charged heads present in water solution of soap, prevent
dirt surrounded by soap 1 aggregates. Thus, the oily dirt is removed
from the object.
coming together
the small globules micelles is removed along with
the water used to wash dirty clothes.
soap
dirt as micelle
(v) The oily
 EKPERIN
PRACTICAL PROCA
CH, CH, CH, CH, CH,

CH, O Na'
Sodium stearate (C,,H,C00 Na') (Soap)
(a)
Hydrophilic head

WwW Hydrophobic tal

(b) Soap moleculo
(a) Soap (Sodium stearate). (b) Hydrocartbonic tail (hydrophilic tail,
water repelling and head (hydrophilic-water attracting).

Soap moleculos

OBS

Na Na Na

Na Na
Dirt particle
Water (oil or grease) INF
Na' Na
Na

Soap micelle entraps the dirt particle.

Soaps are not effective cleansing agents in hard water. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium
chlorides and carbonates, Soaps form curdy precipitate (scum) with calcium and magnesium ions due to P
formation of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids. This scum makes cleaning of clothes difficult.
and help in
.Soft water does not contain Caz and Mg2+ ions. So, soap gives lather easily in soft water
cleaning clothes.
and Mg present in
- Syntheticdetergents do not give curdy precipitate (scum) with metal ions of Ca*
hard water.
-COOK) and one end of the
. Soap molecules contain a carboxylic acid group (COOH Le.,-COONa or hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon chain. Whereas synthetic detergents (they are also Na x K* salt of long
sulphonic acids) contain a sulphonicacid group (SO,H ie., -SO,Na) on one end of hydrocarbon
crau
Soap molecule : W W Carboxylic
COO Na
Hydrocarbon chain group

Detergent molecule : WWso,Na

Sulphonic
Hydrocarbon chain group
the
great deal of branch. Nowadays,
6. Earlier, synthetic detergents contained long hydrocarbon chain with a
detergents are made up of molecules in which the branching of hydrocarbon chain s kept miin
EXPERIMENTS

99
PROCEDURE

1. Take two pieces ofwhite cloth (each 5 cm x 5 cm in size). Put one drop of ink (washable ink. Do not use
unwashable permanent ink) in the centre of each cloth and let it dry.
2. Dissolve about 2 g of good quality of cloth washing soap in 50 mL of tap water in a 250 mL beaker.
Mark the beaker as S (indicating soap solution in soft water). Stir the solution well.
3. Take another beaker of 250 mL beaker and add 50 m tap water. Add asmall amount of calcium chloride
or magnesium chloride in the water of the beaker. Stir the solution well, witha glass rod to make the solution
homogenous. Mark the beaker containing water and magnesium/calcium chloride as H(indicating hard
water).
4. Add 2 gof good quality of soap (the same as added in beaker marked be S).
5. Introduce one white cloth in soap solution Hand the another one in the soap solution S.
6. Leave the solutions undisturbed for ten minutes. After ten minutes, rub each cloth in the soap solution
of each beaker.
7.Wash the each cloth nder flowing water. What happened to the ink spot ?
8. Record your observations.

OBSERVATION
1.The ink spot on the cloth dipped in the solution S(soap solution in soft water) has almost disappeared.
2. The ink spot on the cloth dipped in the solution H(soap solution in hard water) does not show diminision.
However, some scum is deposited on the cloth.
INFERENCE AND RESULT
1. Cleansing activity is normal in the beaker containing soap solution in soft water. The ink spot almost
diminished (almost disappeared) on the white coth. Showing that soap in soft water reacted well in
cleaning the cloth.
2. Cleansing activity is negligible in the beaker containing soap solution in hard water. The ink spot in soap
solution in hard water does not diminish (disappear).

PRECAUTIONS
1. For the experiment of cleaning capacity of asoap, always use cloth washing soap and not bathing soap or
the synthetic detergent.
2.The quantity of ink-drops put on each whitecloth piece should be equal.
3. The ink spot on the cloth must be dried before washing with soap solutions.
4. Add sufficient amount of calcium chloride or magnesium chloride to the water to make it hard water.