UNIT

01 Introduction to Data Communication

Names of Sub-Units

Introduction, Components of Data Communication, Data Representation and Data Flow. Network
Devices, Types of Connection, Topology, Categories of Networks, Interconnection of Networks,
Applications of Networks, History of Network, Protocols and Standards.

Overview
This unit begins by learning about the concept of data communication. Then, the unit discusses
components of data communication. Next, the unit discusses the concept of data representation and
data flow. Further, the unit discusses the network devices, types of connection, and network topology.
This unit also discusses the categories of network and interconnection of networks. Then, the unit
discusses the applications of network and history of network. Towards the end, the unit discusses the
protocol and standards.

Learning Objectives

In this unit, you will learn to:

 Describe the concept of computer networks and their objectives
 Explain the concept of data representation, data flow, and network devices
 Describe the network topology, categories of networks, and interconnection of networks
 Define the applications of networks and history of network
 Explain the protocols and standards of network
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit you would:
 Assess the knowledge about data communication and computer networks
 Analyse the concept of data representation, data flow, and network devices
 Examine the significance of the network topology, categories of networks, and interconnection of
networks
 Assess the applications of networks
 Examine the idea about network protocols and standards

Pre-Unit Preparatory Material

 https://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/syllFybscit/dcn.pdf

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and electronic devices such as printers.
This connectivity allows computers to share information more easily. Computers can communicate
with one another via wired or wireless medium.

1.2 DaTa aND INFORMaTION

Data is the collection of basic facts, whereas information is the processing of data that allows us to
make judgments.
When the results of a particular test are announced, the data of all students is included, and when you
find the marks you earned, you have the knowledge you need to know whether you have passed or
failed. The term “data” refers to any information that is presented in a format that can be manipulated.

1.3 DaTa COMMUNICaTION

Data communication is the process of transferring data between two devices in a meaningful way
through a communication medium.
Devices must be integrated into the communication system. The communication system is constructed
of consisting of both hardware and software, to ensure efficient communication.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The following are the characteristics of data communication:
1. Delivery: The data to be transmitted must be supplied at the right place.
2. accuracy: The data should be supplied in its original form, with no changes.
3. Timeliness: The data must be sent without delay via the communication mechanism.
4. Jitter: In a network, data is divided into smaller groups (packets) and sent one at a time, individually.
The difference in arrival times between two people.

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1.3.2 Components of Data Communication

The following five components are critical to the communication system’s success.
1. Data/Message: The data/message is the most important component of the communication system.
The information exchanged between the source and the destination is referred to as data/message.
2. Source: A source is a device that creates and transmits data to the destination.
3. Destination: The device that receives the data is known as the destination.
4. Medium: It serves as a transport for data as it travels from the source to destination. The route is
provided by the carrier, which might be wired or wireless.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a collection of rules that regulate the proper transmission of data manner.

1.4 DaTa REPRESENTaTION

Data is a collection of unprocessed facts that is used to derive information. Data may be represented in
several different ways. The following are some examples of data types used in communications:
1. Text: The text consists of a blend of upper- and lower-case alphabets. It is saved as a bit pattern.
ASCII and Unicode are the most widely used encoding systems.
2. Quantities: Numbers are made up of digits ranging from 0 to 9. It is saved as a bit pattern. ASCII and
Unicode are the most widely used encoding systems.
3. Images: There is a popular adage that “a picture is worth a thousand words.” Images are digitally
saved in computers.
The smallest constituent of a picture is a pixel. A picture or image is a matrix of pixel components,
to put it simply.
The bits are used to represent the pixels. Each pixel would require a variable number of bits to
indicate the value of a pixel depending on the kind of picture (black and white or coloured).
The number of pixels (also known as resolution) and the bit pattern used to represent the value of
each pixel determine the size of a picture.
4. audio: Data can take the form of sound, which can be captured and disseminated. For example,
what we hear on the radio is a data or information source. The data in audio is continuous rather
than discrete.
5. Video: Use of video: The term “video” refers to the transmission of data in the form of an image or a
movie.

1.5 DaTa FLOW

The data flow specifies the direction in which data flows between the source and the destination.
Simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex data transfer are all possibilities. Figure 1 shows the three methods
of the information stream:

Direction of data at all time

CPU MONITOR

Simplex Data flow

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Direction of data at all time d1

Device 1 Device 2

Direction of data at all time d2

Half-Duplex Data Flow

Direction of data at all time

Device 1 Device 2

Direction of data at all time

Full-Duplex Data Flow

Figure 1: Methods of Information Stream

1.5.1 Simplex
In simplex mode, the course of the information stream is unidirectional. One of the gadgets can
communicate the information and another gadget can get consistently (Figure 1 Part 1). A model is the
CPU that sends the information to the screen constantly.

1.5.2 Half Duplex

Into equal parts duplex mode, the information can be communicated on both bearings yet not
simultaneously (gadget 1 to gadget 2 or gadget 2 to gadget 1) (Figure 1 Part 2). One gadget can send, and
another can receive at the same time. The model is a walkie-talkie. The whole medium is utilized for the
single direction transmission.

1.5.3 Full Duplex

In full-duplex mode, the information can be sent on both bearings (gadget 1 to gadget 2 and gadget 2 to
gadget 1) at the same time (Figure 1 Part 3). One gadget can send, and another can receive at the same
time. The model is phone correspondence. In this, the whole medium is partitioned for the two-way
transmission.

1.6 NETWORk DEVICES

Network devices, often known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware on a
computer network to communicate and interact with one another. The following are common network
devices:
 Bridge
 Gateway
 Modem
 Repeater

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 Access Point
 Hub
 Switch Router

1.7 TYPES OF CONNECTION

A network, as we already know, is made up of two or more devices connected via a communication
means. The medium serves as a physical connection between two devices. The devices’ connection is
divided into two types: Point-to-point and multipoint.

1.7.1 Point-to-Point
It establishes a direct and dedicated connection between two devices (usually the source and the
destination). Only these two devices have access to the link’s complete transmission capacity. For
instance, a connection between a display and a computer.
Figure 2 shows the point-to-point connection:

Device Link Device

Figure 2: Point-to-Point Connection

1.7.2 Multiple Points

Many devices share a connection, and all devices share the transmission capacity connected. Consider a
cable television network or a client-server network. Figure 3 shows the multipoint connection:

D1 D2 D3

Link
SERVER

D4 D5 D6

Figure 3: Multipoint Connection

1.8 NETWORk TOPOLOgY

The manner in which computer systems or network devices are connected is referred to as a network
topology. Both the physical and conceptual features of a network may be defined by topologies. In the
same network, logical and physical topologies might be the same or distinct. Some important points of
network topology are listed below:
 Cost: For a network to be cost efficient, the installation cost should be kept as low as possible. This
can be accomplished using well-understood media and, to a lesser extent, by reducing the distances
involved.

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 Flexibility: Because office furniture, internal walls, and other elements change often, the network
architecture should allow for quick reconfiguration. This entails relocating existing nodes as well as
creating new ones.
 Reliability: A network’s failure might take two forms. To begin with, a single node might fail. This
is not as bad as the second sort of failure, in which the network fails to function. The network
architecture selected can assist by allowing the location of the issue to be discovered and some
methods of isolating it.

1.8.1 Star Topology

The star topology is the most prevalent network topology, in which each device in the network is
connected to a central hub. The central hub is the sole way for devices to interact with one another.

advantages of Bus Topology

Star topologies are popular because they make it easy to control your whole network from one location.
Because each node is connected to the central hub separately, if one fails, the remainder of the network
will continue to operate normally, making the star topology a reliable and secure network structure.
Devices can also be added, deleted, or updated without bringing the entire network down. On the
physical side of things, the star topology’s layout requires relatively minimal cable to properly link
the network, allowing for simple deployment and maintenance as the network grows or shrinks. The
network design’s simplicity makes life simpler for administrators as well because it’s simple to spot
where mistakes or performance issues are occurring.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

On the other hand, if the central hub goes down, the entire network falls with it. Administrators should
not have too many problems provided the central hub is properly controlled and maintained. The central
node’s settings and technical requirements also limit the network’s total bandwidth and performance,
making star topologies costly to set up and manage.

1.8.2 Bus Topology

This design, also known as backbone network topology, uses drop lines to link all devices to a single
cable. The advantages of a bus network architecture include its simplicity and ease of installation, as it
requires less wire than alternative topologies.

advantages of Ring Topology

Because the layout is basic, all devices may be linked with a single coaxial or RJ45 cable, bus topologies
are a suitable, cost-effective alternative for smaller networks. More nodes may be readily added to the
network, if necessary, by connecting extra wires.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Bus topologies, on the other hand, are susceptible since they require a single connection to convey data.
If a cable fails, the entire network falls, which may be time-consuming and costly to repair, but this is
less of a concern with smaller networks. Because there is only so much capacity, bus topologies are best
suited for small networks. Each additional node slows transmission speeds.
Furthermore, because data is “half-duplex,” meaning it can’t be delivered in two ways at the same time,
this structure isn’t ideal for networks with high traffic volumes.

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1.8.3 Ring Topology

A device is connected to the two units on either side of it through two dedicated point-to-point links,
forming a ring of devices through which data is passed via repeaters until it reaches the destination
device.

advantages of Ring Topology

When data is transferred, packets move through the circle, passing through each of the intermediary
nodes until they reach their destination, because each device is only linked to the ones on either side.
Repeaters can be used to guarantee packets arrive accurately and without data loss when a big network
is set up in a ring topology. Ring topologies are efficient in transmitting data without mistakes because
only one station on the network may send data at a time, substantially reducing the possibility of packet
collisions. Ring topologies are often cost-effective and quick to set up, and the detailed point-to-point
connection of the nodes makes it reasonably easy to spot network problems or misconfigurations.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Ring topologies, despite their popularity, are prone to failure if not adequately controlled. Because data
transfer between nodes along each ring is unidirectional, if one node goes down, the entire network goes
down with it. As a result, it’s vital to keep track of each node and ensure that it’s in good functioning
order. Even if you’re diligent and attentive to node performance, a transmission line failure might bring
your network to a halt.
The issue of scalability should be considered as well. Because all the devices on the network share
bandwidth in a ring architecture, adding additional devices might cause overall communication delays.
To avoid overburdening the network’s resources and capabilities, network managers must be careful of
the devices introduced to the topology. In order to reconfigure, add, or delete nodes, the entire network
must be taken offline. While this isn’t the end of the world, it may be unpleasant and costly to schedule
network downtime.

1.8.4 Tree Topology

This architecture is made up of a parent-child hierarchy with bus networks connecting star networks.
From a single root node, nodes branch out in a linear fashion, and two linked nodes have just one
common connection.

advantages of Tree Topology

The insertion of nodes and network growth are made simple by combining aspects of the star and
bus topologies. Errors on the network may also be easily troubleshooted because each branch can be
separately examined for performance concerns.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

In a tree topology structure, the health of the root node is as important as it is in a star topology structure.
The different node branches will become disconnected if the central hub fails, while connection within
but not between branch systems would continue. Adding more nodes to a tree topology may rapidly
make appropriate administration a cumbersome, not to mention expensive, experience due to the
hierarchical complexity and linear nature of the network layout. The enormous quantity of wiring
necessary to link each item to the next inside the hierarchical arrangement makes tree topologies costly.

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1.8.5 Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology is one that combines two or more topologies.

advantages of Hybrid Topology

The major benefit of hybrid structures is the degree of flexibility they give, since there are few network
architectural restrictions that a hybrid arrangement cannot handle.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

However, each network architecture has its own set of drawbacks, and as a network develops in
complexity, so does the amount of expertise and know-how required of the administrators to keep
things running smoothly. When designing a hybrid network architecture, there’s also the financial cost
to consider.

1.9 CaTEgORIES OF NETWORkS

There are five different types of communication networks:
 Local area Network (LaN): It’s meant for small physical regions like an office, a collection of
buildings, or a factory. LANs are extensively utilised because they are simple to construct and
troubleshoot. Local area networks (LANs) connect personal PCs and workstations. Through LAN,
we may utilise many topologies such as Star, Ring, Bus, Tree, and so on. A local area network (LAN)
can be as basic as linking two computers to share files and network, or as sophisticated as joining a
full building. LAN networks are also commonly used to share resources like as printers, shared hard
drives, and other such items.
 Metropolitan area Network (MaN): It was created in the 1980s. It’s essentially a more powerful
version of LAN. It’s also known as MAN, and it’s based on the same technology as LAN. It is intended
to cover the entirety of the city. It might be a single cable or a way of linking many LANs into a bigger
network. It is mostly owned and run by a single private or public corporation.
 Wide area Network (WaN): It’s also known as WAN. A WAN can be either a private or a public
leased network. It is used to describe a network that spans a vast area, such as a country’s cover
states. It takes plenty of time and effort to create and maintain. PSTN or satellite connections are the
communication mediums utilized by WAN. Low data rates are used in WAN.
 Wireless Network: The concept of digital wireless communication is not new. Previously, wireless
networks were implemented using Morse code. Modern digital wireless systems perform better, but
the underlying concept remains the same.
 Inter Network: The Internet, sometimes known as the Inter Network, is a collection of two or more
networks. Inter networks are created by connecting two or more separate networks using equipment
such as routers, gateways, and bridges.

1.10 INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORkS

In a parallel computer, an interconnection network transmits data from any source node to any desired
destination node. With as little delay as feasible, this task should be done. It should be able to handle a
high number of such transfers at the same time. In addition, it should be cheap in comparison to the rest
of the system. The network is made up of connections and switches that aid in the transmission of data
from the source to the destination node. The topology, routing algorithm, switching strategy, and flow
management mechanism of a network define it.

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High-speed computer networks are interconnection networks, often known as Multi-Stage

Interconnection Networks (or MINs). They’re links between nodes, each of which can be a single CPU, a
collection of processors, or a memory module.
These connections transmit data from one processor to another or from the processor to the memory,
allowing the job to be split down and computed in parallel. You might, for example, have one network
with a bunch of processors or computers on one end and a memory pool on the other.
Topology refers to the way in which nodes are connected to one another. Static and dynamic topology
are the two basic forms of topology.
Switching elements make up interconnection networks. The pattern used to link individual switches
to other elements such as processors, memory, and other switches is known as topology. Data can be
exchanged between processors in a parallel system via a network.
 Direct Connection Networks: Direct connection networks are made up of nodes that are connected
through point-to-point connections. The point-to-point links in these networks are fixed, making
them static. Rings, meshes, and cubes are examples of direct networks.
 Indirect Connection Networks: Networks with no established neighbors are known as indirect
networks. The connection topology can be dynamically modified to meet the needs of the application.
Bus networks, multistage networks, and crossbar switches are the three types of indirect networks.
 Bus Networks: A bus network is made up of several bit lines that are connected to a number of
resources. The data and address lines are time multiplexed when buses use the same physical lines
for data and addresses. An arbitrator is necessary when there are several bus-masters attached to
the vehicle.
 Multistage Networks: A multistage network is made up of several switch stages. It is made up
of ‘axb’ switches linked in a specific interstage connection pattern (ISC). For many multistage
networks, small 2x2 switch components are a popular choice. The network’s delay is determined
by the number of phases. Different interstage connection arrangements might be chosen. various
types of multistage network can be created.
 Crossbar Switches: A crossbar switch is made up of a series of basic switch components that may
be turned on and off to form or break a connection. A link between a processor and a memory can
be established by turning on a switch element in the matrix. All communication possibilities are
possible with crossbar switches since they are non-blocking.
The following three essential components make up interconnection networks:
 Links: A link is a cable made up of one or more optical fibres or electrical wires connected to a
switch or network interface port at each end via a connector. The initial digital information stream
is obtained by transmitting an analogue signal from one end and receiving it at the other.
 Switches: A switch is made up of a collection of input and output ports, an internal “cross-bar” that
connects all input to all output, internal buffering, and control logic that affects the input-output
connection at any given moment. The number of input ports is usually the same as the number of
output ports.
 Network Interfaces: The network interface differs from switch nodes in that it may be linked via
specific links. The packets are formatted by the network interface, which also produces routing
and control information. In comparison to a switch, it may include input and output buffering. It
can do end-to-end error checking as well as flow control. As a result, the cost is determined by the
complexity of the processing, storage capacity, and number of ports.

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1.11 aPPLICaTIONS OF NETWORkS

Data communication networks have quickly become an integral element of commerce, industry, and
entertainment in the short time they’ve been around. The following are some examples of network
applications in various fields:
 Sales and marketing: Both marketing and sales companies make considerable use of computer
networks. They’re used by marketing professionals to gather, exchange, and evaluate data on client
demands and product development cycles. Teleshopping, which employs order entry computers or
telephones connected to an order-processing network, and on-line reservation services for hotels,
airlines, and other businesses are examples of sales applications.
 Banking and financial services: Financial services are now entirely reliant on computer networks.
Credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment services, and electronic funds transfer
(EFT), which lets a user to transfer money without visiting a bank, are all examples of applications
(an automated teller machine is a kind of electronic funds transfer; automatic pay-check deposit is
another).
 The manufacturing industry: Many parts of production, including the manufacturing process
itself, use computer networks nowadays. Computer-assisted design (CAD) and computer-assisted
manufacturing (CAM), both of which allow several people to work on a project at the same time, are
two applications that leverage networks to offer vital services.
 Electronic messaging: Electronic mail is probably the most utilised network application (e-mail).
 Directory services: Directory services enable for the storage of lists of files in a central place to
speed up global search operations.
 Information services: Bulletin boards and data banks are examples of network information services.
An information service is a website that provides technical details for a new product.
 Electronic Data Exchange (EDI): EDI enables the movement of business data (including documents
such as purchase orders and invoices) without the use of paper.
 Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing allows people to hold meetings without having to be in the same
room. Simple text conferencing is one of the applications (where participants communicate through
their keyboards and computer monitors). Voice conferencing (in which people from various places
interact over the phone at the same time) and video conferencing (where participants can see as
well as talk to one another).
 Cellular phone: Previously, two parties desiring to utilise the telephone company’s services had to
be connected by a fixed physical connection. Wireless phone connections may now be maintained
even when travelling over long distances thanks to today’s cellular networks.
 Cable television: Future cable television services may offer video on demand, as well as the same
information, financial, and communications services that telephone companies and computer
networks presently provide.

1.12 HISTORY OF NETWORk

A computer network is a type of digital telecommunications network that allows nodes to exchange
resources among themselves. Data is exchanged between computing devices in computer networks
via connections (data links) between nodes. These data connections are made via cable media such as
wires or fiber optic cables, or wireless media like Wi-Fi. The Arpanet development in the late 1960s and
early 1970s is credited for kickstarting computer networking as we know it today. There were “networks”

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built by computer vendors prior to that time to connect terminals and distant job entry stations to a
mainframe.
In 1940, George Sitbit used a teletype machine for transporting instructions of a problem set from
his model to his complex number calculator, and received results. Early networks of communicating
computers were begun in the 1950s, including the military radar system Semi-Automatic Ground
Environment (SAGE). Later, in the 1960s, the ARPAnet design incorporated the concept of networking
between computers that saw each other as equal peers in order to accomplish “resource sharing.”
Another notable point of the Arpanet effort was its dependence on the then-novel technology of
packet switching, rather than the more typical message or circuit switching, to efficiently distribute
communication resources among “bursty” users.
Table 1 shows the progression of computer networks from network to internet throughout time:

Table 1: Progression of Computer Networks

Year Event
1961 Leonard Kleinrock introduced the notion of ARPANET, one of the first computer networks, in his article
“Information Flow in Large Communication Nets” in 1961.
1965 Donald Davies created the word “packet” to represent data transferred between computers via a
network in 1965.
1969 The Internet was formally launched on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m., when the first data transfer was
transmitted between UCLA and SRI.
1970 NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) was created by Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA in 1970. NCP is a
NetWare-based file sharing mechanism.
1971 In Hawaii, ALOHAnet, a UHF wireless packet network, is utilised to connect the islands. Although, it is
not Wi-Fi, it aids in the establishment of Wi-Fi.
1973 In 1973, an experimental VoIP call was made, revealing VoIP technology and capabilities for the first
time.
However, it wasn’t until 1995 that the first software allowing users to conduct VoIP calls became
accessible.
1974 In 1974, Xerox introduced the first routers. These early routers, however, were not regarded genuine IP
routers.
1976 In 1976, Ginny Strazisar created the first real IP router, dubbed a gateway at the time.
1978 In 1978, Bob Kahn devised the TCP/IP protocol for networks, which he developed with Vint Cerf’s aid.
1981 The National Science Foundation of the United States created CSNET (Computer Science Network) in
1981.
1983 In 1983, Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel created the first DNS.
1986 In 1986, BITNET II was established to overcome bandwidth difficulties with the first BITNET.
1988 The first publication on network firewall technology was in 1988. The first firewall, known as a packet
filter firewall, was built by Digital Equipment Corporation the same year, according to the report.
1990 In 1990, Kalpana, a network hardware firm based in the United States, designed, and released the first
network switch.

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Year Event
1996 IPv6 was launched in 1996 as an upgrade to IPv4 that included a larger number of IP addresses, better
routing, and integrated encryption.
1997 In June 1997, the first version of the 802.11 Wi-Fi standard was released, with transmission rates of up
to 2 Mbps.
1999 In September 1999, the WEP Wi-Fi encryption standard was released for use with 802.11b.
2003 In 2004, the WPA2 encryption technology was launched as an upgrade to and replacement for WPA. By
the year 2006, all Wi-Fi devices must be WPA2 certified.
2009 In 2009, the Wi-Fi standard 802.11n became official. It can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths
and has faster transmission rates than 802.11a and 802.11g.
2018 In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance launched WPA3 encryption for Wi-Fi, which offers security
improvements over WPA2.

1.13 PROTOCOLS
A procedure is essentially the same as a rule. Communication takes place between entities in various
systems in computer networks. Anything that can transmit or receive data is considered an entity. Any
two entities can’t just transmit each other bitstreams and expect to be understood. In order for the
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a collection of rules that regulate the transmission of data. What is transmitted, how it
is communicated, and when it is communicated are all defined by the protocol. A protocol’s essential
elements are as given below:
 Syntax: This word mostly relates to the data’s structure or format, which essentially refers to the
order in which information is displayed. A basic protocol, for example, may require the first 8 bits of
data to be the sender’s address, the second 8 bits to be the receiver’s address, and the remainder of
the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics: The meaning of each chunk of bits is referred to by this word. How is a certain pattern
should be understood, and what action should be performed based on that interpretation? Does an
address, for example, specify the path to be travelled or the message’s eventual destination?
 Timing: Timing is based on two aspects: when data should be provided and how quickly it can be
sent. When a sender delivers data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can only take 1 Mbps, the receiver will
be overloaded and some data will be lost.

Some rules and processes should be agreed upon at the transmitting and receiving ends of the system
in order for communication between devices to be successful. Protocols are the names given to such
regulations and processes. For different forms of communication, multiple protocols are employed.
Network Protocols are a collection of rules that control how information is exchanged in a simple,
reliable, and secure manner. We need to understand how a network is logically structured or built before
we can examine the most common protocols used to transmit and receive data over a network. The Open
Systems Interface (OSI) proposed by ISO. paradigm is the most widely used methodology for establishing
open communication between two systems. There are some protocols for different-different usability:
 OSI Model (Open Systems Interface Model)
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 PPP (Point to Point Protocol)

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1.13.1 OSI Model (Open Systems Interface Model)

Because it does not describe the precise services and protocols for each layer, the OSI model is not a
network architecture. It simply defines the input and output data for each layer, indicating what it
should perform. It is up to network architects to implement the layers based on their requirements and
available resources. These are the seven layers of the OSI model:
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
 Network layer
 Transport layer
 Session layer
 Presentation layer
 Application layer
Figure 4 shows the OSI reference model:

Source Destination
Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

bits on physical medium

Figure 4: OSI Reference Model

1.13.2 TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the acronym for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a collection of layered protocols used for Internet communication.
This suite uses a client-server communication architecture. The client is the computer that submits the
request, and the server is the computer that receives the request.
TCP/IP has four layers:
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer

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 Network Layer
 Data Link Layer

Figure 5 shows the layers of TCP/IP model:

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer

Figure 5: TCP/IP Model

1.13.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a network protocol for transferring files between computers via TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) connections. FTP is classified as an application layer
protocol in the TCP/IP series.
The end user’s machine is usually referred to as the local host in an FTP transaction. A remote host,
which is generally a server, is the second computer engaged in FTP. Both computers must be connected
to the internet and correctly setup to transmit data using FTP. To access these services, servers must be
set up to provide FTP services, and clients must have FTP software installed. Figure 6 shows the FTP:

FTA Server
Host A 192.168.5.102

Figure 5: FTP

1.13.4 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that allows TCP/IP traffic to be sent over a
serial connection, such as a telephone line. PPP does this by defining the following three terms:
 A framing approach that clearly defines the end of one frame and the beginning of the next, as well
as error detection.
 Link control protocol (LCP) is used to set up communication connections, authenticate them, and
then shut them down when they are no longer needed.
 For each network layer protocol supported by other networks, there is a network control protocol
(NCP).

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PPP allows residential users to connect to the Internet through their telephone lines. Figure 7 shows the
PPP model:

Idle Establish Authentication

Fail
Fail

Terminate Network

Figure 7: Poin-to-Point Protocol

1.14 NETWORk STaNDaRDS

Standards are necessary for developing and sustaining an open and creative market for equipment
makers, as well as ensuring national and international data, communications technology, and process
interoperability.
Standards are ethics for manufacturers, suppliers, government organisations, and other service
providers to guarantee the interconnectivity essential for communications.
There are two types of data communication standards:
 de facto (which means “by fact”/ “by convention”): Are those standards have been recognised as
standards despite the fact that they were not authorised by an established organisation. These kinds
of standards are frequently developed by producers who are just trying to specify the functioning
of a new product or technology.
For example, Apple and Google are two firms that have developed their own set of regulations for
their own goods. They also employ some of the same production standards for their products.
 de jure (Latin for “by law” or “by regulation”): Standards that have been enacted by an officially
recognised authority are known as de jure standards.
For example, all data transmission standard protocols such as SMTP, TCP, IP, and UDP must be followed
when they are required.

1.14.1 Standard Organisations

Most standards are produced through collaboration between standard-setting bodies, government
regulatory agencies, and forums.
Examples of Standard Creation Committees:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

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4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
Examples of Forums:
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

Conclusion 1.15 CONCLUSION

 A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and electronic devices such as

printers.
 Data is the collection of basic facts, whereas information is the processing of data that allows us to
make judgments.
 The term “data” refers to any information that is presented in a format that can be manipulated.
 Data communication is the process of transferring data between two devices in a meaningful way
through a communication medium.
 A source is a device that creates and transmits data to the destination.
 The device that receives the data is known as the destination.
 Medium serves as a transport for data as it travels from source to destination.
 A protocol is a collection of rules that regulate the proper transmission of data manner.
 Data is a collection of unprocessed facts that is used to derive information.
 The data flow specifies the direction in which data flows between the source and the destination.
 In simplex mode, the course of the information stream is unidirectional.
 In full-duplex mode, the information can be sent on both bearings.
 Network devices, often known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware
on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another.
 There are five different types of communication networks: Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Wireless, and Inter Network (Internet).
 Standards are necessary for developing and sustaining an open and creative market for equipment
makers, as well as ensuring national and international data, communications

1.16 GLOSSARY

 Protocols: A set of norms and standards for sharing information.

 Topology: The layout of a computer network.
 Communication: The act of moving data, information from one location, person, or organization to
another.
 Model: It is a design or architecture that allows disparate systems to communicate with one another.

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 Standard: A standard is anything that has been set as a norm, for example, as a comparison point.
 Committee: A committee is a group of persons who have been put together specifically for a task.

1.17 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Essay Type Questions

1. Data communication is the process of transferring data between two devices in a meaningful way
through a communication medium. Discuss the characteristics of data communication.
2. Data may be represented in several different ways. Discuss.
3. The data flow specifies the direction in which data flows between the source and the destination.
Explain the simplex and full duplex mode.
4. The manner in which computer systems or network devices are connected is referred to as a network
topology. Discuss the important point related to network topology.
5. List down the applications of network.

1.18 ANSWERS AND HINTS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Hints for Essay Type Questions

1. The characteristics of data communication are as follows:
 Delivery: The data to be transmitted must be supplied at the right place.
 accuracy: The data should be supplied in its original form, with no changes.
Refer to Section Data Communication
2. The following are some examples of data types used in communications:
 Text: The text consists of a blend of upper- and lower-case alphabets. It is saved as a bit pattern.
ASCII and Unicode are the most widely used encoding systems.
 Quantities: Numbers are made up of digits ranging from 0 to 9. It is saved as a bit pattern. ASCII
and Unicode are the most widely used encoding systems.
Refer to Section Data Representation
3. In simplex mode, the course of the information stream is unidirectional. One of the gadgets can
communicate the information and another gadget can get consistently. A model is the CPU that
sends the information to the screen constantly. Refer to Section Data Flow
4. Some important points of Network Topology are listed below:
 Cost: For a network to be cost efficient, the installation cost should be kept as low as possible.
This can be accomplished using well-understood media and, to a lesser extent, by reducing the
distances involved.
Refer to Section Network Topology
5. Data communication networks have quickly become an integral element of commerce, industry, and
entertainment in the short time they’ve been around. The following are some examples of network
applications in various fields:
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 Sales and marketing: Both marketing and sales companies make considerable use of computer
networks. They’re used by marketing professionals to gather, exchange, and evaluate data on
client demands and product development cycles. Teleshopping, which employs order entry
computers or telephones connected to an order-processing network, and on-line reservation
services for hotels, airlines, and other businesses are examples of sales applications.
Refer to Section Applications of Network

@ 1.19 POST-UNIT READING MATERIAL

 https://ecomputernotes.com/computernetworkingnotes/communication-networks/what-is-data-
communication
 https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Data_Communications_and_Networking/bwUNZ
vJbEeQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=data+communication+forouzan+5th+edition+ppt&printsec
=frontcover

1.20 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION FORUMS

 Discuss with your friends about the importance of a data communication, what to you understand
by th computer topologies and their application areas.

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