Research Skills.

The Research Proposal.

Re...means again. Research means searching again.
Searching again for outcomes that are better than now.
Searching for preferable lifestyles as compared to now.
Seeking standard operating procedures that portend yields more generous by comparison.
Indicating discontent with the obtaining state of affairs.
 Research Functions.

❖ The Planning Function.

Futuristic in nature.
States what will be done.
Indicates how it will be done.
Shows the time frame in which it will be done.
❖ The Contractual Function.

Indicates the deliverables that the research will yield.

Shows how such outcomes will be achieved.
Identifies beneficiaries of the research effort.
Does a cost benefit analyses....to show benefits outweigh costs.
Identifies benign residual societal advantages of the research effort.
❖ The evaluation function.

Measures the quality of the proposed research.

Assesses research effort in terms of ethical compliance.
Inspects adequacy of research in terms of its design.
Establishes acceptability in terms of standards of research practice.
Gauges the research effort for its level of validity and reliability.m
❖ The Training Function.

The educational learning function.

Understanding research work in business and academia.
New knowledge acquisition.
Creation of new knowledge.
Exploration of relevant literature.
Applying theoretical methodology into the realms of reality through
experiential learning.
Gives underlying logic of research activity...Problem tree analyses.
❖ The Problem Statement.

Permits the definition of the problem.

Identifies the need for the study in general terms.
Stipulates the undesirable state of affairs which we want to move
away from.
States what the research will address.
Identifies the gap between what obtains and what we wish for.
Indicates the futuristic ideal if the problem did not exist.
Articulates the reality....the current environment and why it is
untenable.
States the consequences of the gap.
Say how people are affected by the gap.
Quantify the extent of the problem to society at large.
State the impact of the problem in terms of revenue losses, time loss
or increased operational costs.
Indicate how the above malignant outcomes will disappear as a
consequence of your proposal.
Propose how the problem will be addressed.
State how the ideal will be accomplished..
Identify options which become possible solutions to the problem.
Indicate how your organization will harness your proposed solution.
Avoid a single specific solution for a problem that most likely has a
panoply of root causes which feed into each another to compound it.
Quantify monetarily activities that need to be undertaken ordinarily
by whomsoever should do that.
❖ Literature Review.

Re=again....Review......View again.
Comprehensive summary of previous articles on a given topic.
Overview of published works in an area of study.
It describes, enumerates, summarizes, evaluates, clarifies previous
research efforts on a topic of interest.
Its prime purpose is to help build a knowledge base in the area of
study. It synthesizes raging debates and viewpoints of existing
research.
It helps the researcher understand the issues they should grapple
within their study..taking some on board and discarding others.
❖ Function of the literature review.

Review must reveal any knowledge gaps in existing literature.

Resolve conflicts and contradictory viewpoints in the area of study.
Help to avoid duplicity in your study so one does not waste effort in
restating positions already held in prior studies.
Locate your research effort in a new and appropriate terrain of study.
Bring clarity and focus to your research problem.
Broaden your knowledge of the research area.
Improve and expand your research methodology choices.
Contextualize your research findings
❖ Importance of Literature Review.

The review establishes the context for the research study.

It identifies the theoretical framework of the study i.e. it provides a
roadmap for developing the argument in your research topic.
It assists in the formulation of clearer and more concise research
questions. The extensive reading provides you the ebb and tide to revisit
and reconsider the precision of your research questions.
It allows you to evaluate the quality of previous researches.
You can compare and contrast the depth and breath of prior studies.
Significant trends between your and previous researches can be discerned
and highlighted to show their connection.
Reviews can contribute new ideas and insights for future research efforts.
Reviews identify research zones that require further investigation.
Identify key research issues.
Develop new research methods.
Allows for the emergence of new variables and hypotheses.
Permit you to give judgment of the worth and value of prior research.
Helps you understand and distinguish cross sectional studies [current
population studies] from longitudinal studies. [variable over time]
Provides you with validity and reliability checks for your study.
Gives one window to explore complex topics from an informed basis.
Reviews assist in distinguishing theoretical from conceptual
frameworks.
Theoretical frameworks are general in nature and show relationships
between things in a societal phenomenon. For example, bumper
harvests in the country imply increased demand for commercial and
industrial output.
Conceptual frameworks are more specific and give guidance to
research work. For example, it is researchable when one
hypothesizes that a 15%increase in farmer’s payout from tobacco
auction floors will translate to a 20% increase in the demand in retail
outlets in winter.
❖ Research Methodology

Methodology speaks to the collection of research data.

There are four methods used in the collection of data.
1. Experimentation... Like as when you are measuring a car safety
system like S.I.P.S.[Serious impact protection systems].
2. Observational...as when one studies whale mating and calving
patterns to ensure the species does not become extinct.
3. Simulation.... The plane became possible through simulation of
birds’ flight patterns when they are not flapping their wings.
4. Derived...From respondents after questioning, interviews, surveys
etc.
❖ Importance of research methodology.

Methodology points to the suitability of the methods for the decision

that needs to be made.
It indicates the efficiency of the chosen way to solve the problem at
hand.
It affords one to determine the precision and accuracy of the
problem outcome.
The problem solution will be given by either a quantitative approach,
or a qualitative approach or a hybrid of both quantitative and
qualitative techniques. We examine each methodology in turn. N.B.
Case studies and action research can be both qualitative and
quantitative.
❖ Qaulitative Approach

1. Ethnographic... From ethnicity, by people classes, races and tribes.

2. Narrative.... Historical and textual literature and orature.
3. Phenomenological...observed social trends causing disequlibria.
4. Grounded theory... Beliefs e.g. Christians Hindu, Moslems etc.
5. Delphi Technique...Use of specialist experts in the field of study to
give seasoned opinions about the problem.
6. Case studies...e.g. Impact of corona virus on industrial output.
7. Action research...Was the Surf- show- pick- a -box an effective
medium in house-wives’ choice of a washing detergent?
❖ Qualitative.....

Characteristics:
1. The context of inquiry is not predefined and natural.
2. Interactive interface between researcher and respondents.
3. Researcher will understand the experience of the respondent.
Strengths:
1. Data provides insight as given by respondent.
2. Data suggests cause and effects relationships.
3. Data is more adapted to social analyses.
 Weaknesses/ Limitations.
1. Data collection and analyses can take too long a time.
2. There could be biased responses because of researcher
respondent interface.
3. Anonymity and confidentiality of responses are based on trust.
4. Reliability and validity of outcomes are causes for concern.
5. Researcher bias can be discerned if there are desired outcomes on
their part.
❖ Quantitative Approach

1. Descriptive..Textually describing how variables influence each

other.
2. Correlation...identifying the relatedness of variables.
3. Causal comparative... If...then situations e.g. If less than 60% of our
output is demanded, then we will retrench.
4. Experimental...What governs the milk output of a dairy cow?
5. Quasi experimental...the conditions under which a harvest of 13
tonnes per hectare can be achieved.
6. Case studies..Pregnancy statistics for tertiary students in
Zimbabwe.
7. Action research...Stemming STI’s in tertiary students.
❖ Quantitative.....

Characteristics:
1. There is a control with which to compare.
2. The parameters of operation are predefined.
3. Experimentation and simulation may need replication.
4. There can be hypotheses testing...giving both a null and alternative
hypothesis an equal chance for the study outcome.
5. The above provide that this approach is scientific and has little
breach by human interference.
❖ Quantitative....

Strengths:
1. Uses measurement and is thus precise.
2. Controllable at design and sampling.
3. Assumes accuracy of facts.
4. Has controlled variables.
5. Eliminates human biases.
❖ Research Design....Sampling.

Defined as predetermined number of observations from a population.

There are two types of sampling, probability and non probability sampling.
Probability sampling has four types:
1. Random.. Each person in the population has an equal chance of
statistical inference of the group. Haphazard like drawing names from
hat.
2. Systematic sampling....like taking 1 st, 11 th, 21 st, from a given population
or some such criteria as befits situation.
3. Cluster sampling... Picking randomly from a population that first divided
into defined clusters
❖ Probability sampling....

4. Stratified sampling...e.g. cluster students by male and female criterion

the random sample to ensure participation by either sex.
Non Probability sampling has six types of sampling techniques.
1. Purposive sampling ... If the study was educational one could opt to
sample teachers only.
2. Judgmental...for an economic policy study one uses their acumen to
identify who they think has mental wherewithal to respond to questions
they might have designed.
3. Convenience...Proximity and access to respondents could well be the
criteria for selecting them. Turns out to be cheaper and expedient too.
❖ Non probability sampling.....

4. Quota sampling...Zanu requires youth quota, women’s quota and

men’s quota to create its central committee
5. Snowball sampling...Sample grows over time into a snowball
when fresher respondents are taken on board.
6. Multi stage sampling. As the name suggests, sampling occurs at
different stages in the life of the organization. Mostly suitable for
longitudinal studies that cover a whole era in which the study is
undertaken.
❖ Data Collection.

There are two types of data.

Primary data...has never been available. Being obtained first time.
1. Surveys/Observations.
2. Polls.
3. Interview.
4. Focus groups.
5. Action Research.
6. Delphi.
 Data collection......secondary data...available in the reading domain.

1. Financial reports.
2. Sales/market reports.
3. Governments reports and tabloids.
4. Vision /mission statements.
5. Online transactional tracking.
6. Internet.
7. Social media monitoring.
8. Organizational/institutional reports e.g. U.N., OPEC, BRICS,NATO,
SADC... etc.
❖ Data Analyses

Analyses helps to summarize collected data.

To interpret the data.
To determine patterns, trends and relationships in the data.
All data goes through 4 phases.
1. Collecting.....as above.
2. Cleaning...removing repeats and /or iterations.
3. Sorting.....allocating data according to specific usage.
4. Process.
 Data processing

When processed properly, data should:

1. Illustrate.....graphic and diagrammatic representations.
2. Condense.....categorize...put together in appropriate classes.
3. Recap.....indicate key points and summarize.
Typically, analysed data should pass the 3 C’s test.
1. Completeness..adequate for the purpose for which it was collected.
2. Correctness....valid and reliable.
3. Clarity...suitable to prosecute the objectives of the study.
 Data analyses....types.

1. Diagnostic...annotating the root causes of the problem.

2. Predictive..indicating future scenarios most likely to hold.
3. Prescriptive....indicating action now to mitigate problem.
4. Descriptive/text....showing both genesis and solution of problem.
5. Statistical....with a scientific and numerical bias. Typical use of pie
charts, histograms, frequency polygons, scatter diagrams and
regression analyses become the tools of choice.