RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MODULE I
Topics covered
Introduction, Research Paradigms, Types of research, Literature studies, Literature map,
Identifying gap areas from literature review, Development of working hypothesis, Formulating
research problem, Referencing styles.

What is a Research?
● Search for knowledge.
● Movement from the known to unknown
Ordinary sense :-
Not scientific, complex procedure,result not reliable
Technical Sense :-
In this, research is done as a process
● Selection of a problem
● Solve the problem

What is a Research?
● “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.” (1 The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1952, p.
1069.)
● “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
the practice of an art.” (The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX, MacMillan, 1930)
● “systematized effort to gain new knowledge. (L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory, The Romance
of Research, 1923, p.10.) The systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching
 certain conclusion either in the form of solutions towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.” (Kothari, C. R. and Garg, G.
Research methodology Methods and Techniques. 2014 - New Age International (P) Ltd. -
New Delhi.

Research process include so many questions

Objective :
● To seek knowledge describing -nature, quality & Philosophy of research
● To gain familarity with a phenomenon
● To portray accurately the charaterstics,
● To determine frequency with something occurs
● To test hypothesis / relationship between variables

Purpose :
● Benefits of research
● denotes how that result of research be beneficial to the society

Motivation in Research
● To find out the real research problem
● To get the desired degree
● To work with a funding agency
● To get intellectual joy
● Service to society, get respect

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Two types of research in terms of the nature and purpose of the study:
● 1) BASIC or Fundamental Research
● 2) APPLIED Research
BASIC RESEARCH
• Investigates the basic reasons and principle behind the occurrence of a particular
phenomenon or event
• Theoretical Research:
• Driven by pure curiosity and the desire to expand one’s knowledge on a specific subject-
matter or discipline.
• Example: An investigation that looks at the factors that trigger depression
• Basic research provides us with a systematic and deep insight into a problem that can
have practical significance to our lives and the society as a whole.
 • Basic Research is further divided into
• Pure
• Strategic
PURE BASIC RESEARCH
• Is experimental and theoretical work, undertaken to acquire new knowledge without
looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.
• Pure Research is conducted without any specific outcome in mind other than the
advancement of knowledge. EG:

STRATEGIC BASIC RESEARCH

• Is directed into specific broad areas in expectation of useful discoveries. Research
providing the broad base of knowledge necessary for the solution of recognized practical
problems.
• (Concept, Model, Method, Framework, Prototype, System, etc)
• Stratgeic Research is conducted with the intention of providing a broad base of
knowledge that may help in addressing a specific problem.
APPLIED RESEARCH
• Aims at finding solutions to pressing problems that society, organizations, and the like
are facing by employing well-known theories and principles.
• Conducted to determine the possible uses or applications of the findings of basic research
organizations
• Example – A Study that attempts to determine the impact of mining on the socio-
economic life of the indigenous peoples.

Basic and Applied Research are further divided into 3 types of research in terms of methods:
1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Mixed Research
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
o Systematic Investigation of observable phenomena through a computational,
mathematical, and, most especially, statistical technique.
o Researcher analyzes the data
o Produce logical and unbiased results.
o Numerical in nature, and employs statistics and mathematics.
o In terms of purpose, this method aims to develop mathematical models, hypotheses,
and theories that pertain to the quantifiable phenomena under investigation.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
o does not require a sophisticated statistical treatment.
o scientific investigation on non-quantifiable phenomena, such as experiences, with the
intention of understanding a particular phenomenon through a holistic description and
exploration of the meaning, nature, and dynamics of the said phenomenon or situation.
o best method when it comes to researching about the “why and how” questions of human
experience.
o Non – numerical
o Descriptive
o Exploratory
o Narrative
o In terms of purpose, a Qualitative Research method primarily aims to know the
meaning, nature, and dynamics of a particular phenomenon or situation under
investigation.
o

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

o Systematic integration or combination of both quantitative and qualitative research
methods in the investigation of a particular phenomenon, event, or situation.
o Holistic and more meaningful interpretation of data
Types of Research based on Objectives
● Inventive Research
● Exploratory / Formulative Research
● Explanatory Research
● Diagnostic Research
● Remedial Research
● Comparative Research
● Experimental / Laboratory Research
● Historical Research

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
● Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization.
 ● Research has been done to solve operational problems
● Research provide basis for nearly all governmental policies in our economic times - budget
: needs and desire of people, availabilty of revenue
● Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the
consequences of each alternatives.
● Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
seeking answers to various social problems.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

● Purpose should be clearly defined
● Common concepts to be used
● Explain procedure clearly - for continuity
● Results should be as objective as possible
● Report with frankness
Acknowledge, procedural flaws
Limitations of the study
● Appropriate statistical test of significance
● Reliable outcome measures
● Justify conclusions with data
● Experienced researcher
● Systematic
● Logical

PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA

● Lack of scientific training in methodology of research
● Insufficient interaction
● Need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained will not be misused
● Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information
● Timely and adequate secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance
● Library management & functioning is not satisfactory at many places
● Difficulty of timely availability of published data

LITERATURE STUDIES / REVIEW

DEFINITION
• According to university of wincosin writing centre, A literature review is a
“critical analysis of a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification,
and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles”

KEY POINTS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

● Tell me what the research says(Theory)
● Tell me how the research was carried out (Methodology)
● Tell me what is missing or the gap that research intends to fill.(Research gap)
What is a literature map?
Cresswell suggested that it is a two-dimensional diagrammatic representation of information
where links are made between concepts by drawing arrows (which could be annotated to define
the nature of these links; Cresswell, 2011).
How does a literature map solve the problem?
A literature map may be handy in
• understanding the critical issues, proper methodologies and research findings in the
literature,
• organising the flow of ideas using a structured document.
• Understanding the relationships between different studies and groupings according to
similar findings or methodologies
HOW TO FIND A RESEARCH GAP
• Select a topic or question that motivates you: Research can take a long time and surely
a large amount of physical, intellectual and emotional effort, therefore choose a topic that
can keep you motivated throughout the process.
• Find keywords and related terms to your selected topic: Besides synthesizing the
topic to its essential core, this will help you in the next step.
• Use the identified keywords to search literature: From your findings in the above step,
identify relevant publications and cited literature in those publications.
• Look for topics or issues that are missing or not addressed within (or related to) your
main topic.
• Read systematic reviews: These documents plunge deeply into scholarly literature and
identify trends and paradigm shifts in fields of study. Sometimes they reveal areas or
topics that need more attention from researchers and scientists.
DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent

variable.Hypothesis must contain at least one independent variable and one dependent variable.
Is an all-embracing perspective:
● On how scientific investigations should proceed
● Consists of a set of research principles and methods
● that help researchers obtain valid results from their research studies
A hypothesis must have a reasonable explanation to any problem in the present state of
knowledge.A hypothesis must have a theoretical orientation. A good hypothesis must be able to
support or refute(deny) an existing theory of social relations.

Research Questions & Hypothesis

In qualitative research, the research questions assume two forms:

● a central question and
● associated sub questions
The central question is a statement of the question being examined in the study in its most
general form so as to not limit the inquiry

Definition Of Hypothesis By Various Authors :

● “A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”.

(Kerlinger, 1956)
● “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising
theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when
possible”. (Eric Rogers, 1966)
● “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
● A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It
provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation." (Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001).

Functions/ Importance

A hypothesis contains several concepts which are logically connected or arranged. The
interrelationships among the concepts give a clear answer to the problem under study.
1. Hypothesis can explain all the facts connected with it.
2. Hypothesis helps us to provide direction to the research. A researcher can decide what data are
to be collected for the study on the basis of the hypothesis.
3. Hypothesis prevents us from blind search. Hypothesis helps us to search only for relevant facts.
So it is helping us to save money and time.
4. Hypothesis can place clear and specific goals before the researcher. 5. Hypothesis acts as a guide
to collect the relevant data related to the problem.
6. A hypothesis can suggest the expected relationships between two or more variables. If A and B
are two variables a hypothesis states the possible relationship between A and B. This means that a
hypothesis must have two or more variables and it should reveal how the variables are related to
each other.

Features of a good hypothesis :

● A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. All the concepts used in a hypothesis must be
clearly defined.
● A hypothesis must be clear, definite and stated in a simple manner.
● A hypothesis must be specific and precise. The possible relationships among the variables
must be precisely
● stated in a hypothesis.
● A hypothesis must be empirically testable. Concepts which do not have empirical basis
must not be included in a hypothesis.
● A hypothesis should be consistent with known facts.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis :

Simple Specific Stated in Advance

Disadvantages

1. Stating a hypothesis may lead to a bias, either consciously or unconsciously, on the part of the
researcher. This is because the researcher may be tempted to arrange the procedures or manipulate
the data in such a way as to bring about a desired outcome. This depends on the honesty of the
researchers.
2. Stating hypothesis may sometimes be unnecessary, or even inappropriate, in certain research
projects of certain types i.e., descriptive, historic studies
3. Stating hypothesis may prevent researchers from noticing other phenomena that might be
important to study
Types of Hypothesis

1. Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses

Null hypothesis always predicts that
● no differences between the groups being studied (e.g., experimental vs. control group) or
● no relationship between the variables being studied
By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a difference between
the groups being studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied)

2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional Hypothesis

● If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups,then
it is a non-directional hypothesis. It is nondirectional because it predicts that there will be
a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ.
● If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as “greater,” “less,”
“better,” or “worse,” then it is a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts
that there will be a difference between the two groups and it specifies how the two groups
will differ
3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses(Theory Building and Theory Testing) classified in
terms of how they were derived:
- Inductive hypothesis - a generalization based on observation
- Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory

Hypothesis Formulation :

1.First identify a general area of interest to be researched

Example: effects of smoking on health
2. Then identify a research question – the research question should be more narrowly defined
(more specific) than the general research topic.
Example: “Does smoking cause lung cancer?”
3. Then operationally define the variables. The researcher is in control of the independent variable
in the experiment. The dependent variable, however, is merely observed in the context of the
experiment. For an experiment to be valid, it must contain at least two variables.
4. Now it is time to formulate the hypothesis in an attempt to answer the question by making it a
conditional statement like:
"Smoking may cause lung cancer.”
5. Refine it by writing a formalized hypothesis like:
"If smoking causes lung cancer, then individuals who smoke have a higher frequency of
developing the disease." This type of "if-then" hypothesis is considered the most useful.
6. Verify that the hypothesis includes a subject group. A subject group defines who or what the
researcher is studying.
In the example above, the subject group is the smokers