Geological Mapping

BSc Marine Geosciences

Module „Structural Geology and Tectonics”
(VA-Nummer 05-BMG-ME2-3 )

Course (Thursdays in SoSe, in „Rm 3010“)

Course 1: 12:00 – 14:00 Uhr
Course 2: 14:00 – 16:00 Uhr

Teacher: Dr. R. Rendle-Bühring (rrendle@uni-bremen.de, GEO1250, 218-65040)

Lessons are a combination of theoretical lectures with integrated and/or

subsequent exercises.

This Geological Mapping Course is Part of the Module “Structural Geology and Tectonics”.
Course: “Regional Geology” (05-BMG-ME2-4). Frank Lisker (Module Coordinator)
Course Schedule Date Theme Thur, 12:00 – 14:00 Thur, 14:00 – 16:00

1 13.04.23 Theory: Introduction to Maps, Standards, Projections etc.

Exercise: Geological Map Aalen/Adorf

Theory and 12 Exercises

Coordinates Latitude (N-S) and Longitude (E-W) /UTM-Coordinate System
Exercise: Topographic Profile of Horizontal Bedding Map (1)
Rendle Rendle

Written Module Exam

2 20.04.23 Theory: Horizontal Parallel Bedding
Map Aalen/Adorf  Geology/Stratigraphy
Exercise: Map/Profile Horizontal Parallel Bedding (1) Rendle Rendle

No Lesson: 3 27.04.23 Theory: Strike /Dip; Concept of Strike Lines

Exercise: Map/Profile Inclined Strike Lines (2)

18.05.23 Ascension Day Theory: Apparent vs. True Dip /Calculations

Exercise: Map/Profile Inclined Bedding (3)
Rendle Rendle

4 04.05.23 Theory: The 3-Point Problem

Exercise: Map Coal Vein (4) Rendle Rendle

5 11.05.23 Theory: Faults

Exercise: Normal Faults (5)
Exercise: Reverse Faults (6) Rendle Rendle

6 18.05.23 Religious Holiday – Ascention Weekend

- -

7 25.05.23 Theory: Revision of Faults

Theory: Unconformity
Exercise: Unconformity (7) Rendle Rendle

8 01.06.23 Theory: Folds

Exercise: Normal Folds (8)
Exercise: Recumbert Folds (9) Rendle Rendle

9 08.06.23 Theory: Magnetic Bodies and the Quaternary

Exercise: Complex Strutures (10)
Exercise: Complex Structures (11) Rendle Rendle

10 15.06.23 Theory: Revision of Key Themes

Exercise: Block Diagram (12) Rendle Rendle

11 22.06.23 Map Features Exercise in small groups

Rendle Rendle

12 29.06.23 Exercise Qus. date (voluntary)

Rendle Rendle

13 06.07.23 Geological Mapping (Finishing Course Work)

Rendle Rendle

14 13.07.23 Deadline for Geological Mapping Course Work

- -

14.07.23 End Summer Semester Lessons

Course Content:

• Construction of topographic maps, Co-ordinate systems and different projection types

• Content criteria of geological maps

• Profile constructions of various complex hypothetical geological maps.

Topographic Maps Geological Maps Geologisches Profiles

http://www.diercke.de

www.mygeo.de

http://alt.mr-kartographie.de
Learning Objectives:
• To understand geological bodies spacially from a 2-dimentional map and obtain a
perspective of their 3-dimentional structure.

• Imparting knowledge grained from the geological mapping exercises to create your own
geological maps in the field.

2-dimentional geological map

(→ Earths surface)

‚3-dimentional geological block diagram

(→ subsurface)

http://atlas.umwelt.hessen.de
Course Content:

1. Introduction, Standards, Projections, Topographic and Geologiccal Maps

2. Horizontal Parallel Bedding
3. Strike / Dip (Inclined Bedding), Concept of Strike Lines
4. Apparent vs. True Dip, Calculations
5. The 3-Point Problem
6. Faults
7. Folds
8. Magnetic bodies and the Quaternary, Complex Structures
9. Presentation of Geological Maps (Individual and Group work)
 What you need to bring to each lesson:

1. Triangular Ruler + 30cm Ruler

2. Coloured pencils (approx.12 colours), NO felt-tip pens or permanent markers

3. Pencils (Middle-hard eg. HB), a pencil sharpener, a rubber

4. Millimeter Paper (DIN A4) BUY YOURSELF!!!

5. Calculator (including a trigonometry function)

You have to buy/provide this YOURSELF!!!

Literature:
• Bennison, G.M. (1989): An Introduction to Geological Structures and Maps.

• Lisle, R.J. (1988): Geological Structures and Maps: A Practical Guide. Pergamon Press.
• (theory and exercises)

• Maltman, A. (1998) Geological Maps: An Introduction. Open University Press.

(lots of details)
→ Die The lecture documents, hand-outs and exercises are enough to prepare for
the course exam!

→ the literature can be used to clarify and re-inforce your understanding of the
themes delt with during the lessons.
• Hake, G. (1975) Kartographie – Band 1: Kartenaufnahme, Netzentwürfe, Gestaltungsmerkmale, DeGruyter

• Quade, H. (1984): Die Lagenkugelprojektion in der Tektonik: Das SCHMIDTsche Netz und seine Anwendung.
Clausthaler tektonische Hefte, 20, Pilger, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, 196 pp.

• Powell, D. (1995) Interpretation geologischer Strukturen durch Karten Springer

(sehr gut, viele Übungen und gute Einleitung)

• Voßmersbäumer, H. (1991) Geologische Karten, Schweizerbart´sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (gute Einleitung, viele

Übungen)
Definitions of Maps:
• A map is a representation of the landscape that is as accurate and
complete as possible.
• A map is a reduced image of the Earth´s surface or a section of the
Earth´s surface projected onto a hoizontal plane.
• The reduction is based on simple and mostly, unambiguous geometric
relationships.

Types of Maps:
• Topographic Maps

• Areal Photos, Satellite Photos and Special Maps

(eg Low Altitude Maps for Pilots, Vegetation or Land Use Maps)

• Geological Maps
Topographic Maps
• A depiction of Landforms and other visible details of the Earth´s surface.
Areal Photos
Geological Maps
• A representation of the geological condistions of an area on the surface of the Earth or a
plane parallel to the surface.
Geological overview map of the Upper Rhine Graben
Map Scales:

The linear reduction of a map, in relation to the represented section of the Earth´s surface, is
the scale! The scale of the map is the linear reduction ratio.

Eg. 1:25,000 → 1 cm on the map is equivalent to 25,000 cm (= 250 m) in nature (reality).

M=1:m
(with M = scale and m = scale number)
→ The scale is inversely proportional to the scale number. The larger the scale number, the
smaller the scale.

Big Scale: 1:10,000 >

Middle Scale: scales between
Small Scale: 1:300,000 <
Topographic Maps:

German Base Map 1:5.000 (20 cm = 1 km) (DGK 5; '20-cm-Karte')

(Deutsche Grundkarte)
Standard German Topographic Map 1:25.000 (4 cm = 1 km) (TK 25; '4-cm-Karte')
(Topographische Karte: MESSTISCHBLATT)
Topographic Map 1:50.000 (2 cm = 1 km) (TK 50; '2-cm-Karte')
(Topographische Karte 1:50,000)
Topographic Map 1:100,000 (1 cm = 1 km) (TK 100; '1-cm-Karte')
(Topographische Karte 1:100,000)
Topographic Overview Map 1:200.000 (0.5 cm = 1 km) (TÜK 200; '5-mm-Karte')
(Topographische Übersichtskarte 1:200,000)

!! Other standards are used abroad !! (eg. British Ordnance Survey Maps:
Pathfinder Series (by Foot) are 1: 25,000 ie 2.5 INCHES to 1 MILE [4 cm to 1 km])
Landranger Series (in a Car) are 1: 50,000 ie 1.25 INCHES to 1 MILE [2 cm to 1 km])
Examples of German Map Sizes:

4718 Goddelsheim L 4718 Korbach C4718 Korbach CC Kassel

(4618 Adorf = 1: 25,000) (1: 50,000) (1: 100,000)
Naming Topographic Maps- Numbering System

Topographic Maps 1:25,000 are named after the largest town (eg. Adorf [4618])
4-digit number consists of 2 numbers in a row and 2 numbers in a column→ clearly
positioned on a map of Germany.

4x 1:25,000 Maps result in a Map 1:50,000

- Also Named after the largest town (eg. Korbach [L4718])
- the same number as the 4-cm-Map in the bottom left quadrant (eg. Goddelsheim
[4618]);
Addition of the letter „L“ (Roman nummeral for 50)

4x 1:50,000 Maps result in a Map 100,000

(eg. Korbach [C4718] or Kassel [C4718])
Addition of the letter „C“ (Roman nummeral for 100)
Information on a Topographic Map
Scale: 1:25,000

Map Leaf: Nummer and NAME

TK 10: orange
TK 25: green
TK 50: blue
TK 100: red

Publisher: State Surveying Office

(Landesvermessungs-
Amt) Baden-Württemberg

Bons, 2002
(eg. Adorf [4618])
18 = Column 18 (Vertical Column) numbered from West to East

Topographic Maps:
1:25,000 are named after
the largest town
(eg. Adorf [4618])
4-digit number consists
of: 2 numbers in a row
and 2 numbers in a
column.

46 = Zone 46

(horizontal column)
Numbered from
North to South
UTM co-ordinates Geographical co-ordinates Gauß-Krüger co-ordinates
Geographical 08°39´56,4´´
51°23´55,3´´
coordinates

UTM 477E
coordinates 5694N

Gauß-Krüger 3477 R
coordinates 5695 H
Geographical Coordinates:
Longitude and Latitude
International Geographical Co-ordination System:
Based on mutually perpendicular circular lines (Latitude - horizontal) und Longitude = Meridians
(vertical).
Latitude lines circle the Earth in an East-West direction and run parallel to the Equator. Then give the
geographical coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earths surface. All
lines of latitude, N and S of the Equator, are lesser circles.
Equator is 0° and the Poles are 90°.

Longitude lines circle the Earth in a North-South direction.

Then give the geographical coordinate that specifies the
East-West position of a point on the Earths surface.
The lines connect the Poles and are called Meridians.
The prime meridian (0°) runs through Greenwich.
Distances between the Meridians:
The distance between two longitude lines is
biggest at the Equator- approx. 111 km (40000
km/360 is equivalent to 60 Nautical Miles – the
nautical sea mile was originally defined as 1
minute of arc on the Equator).

The longitude lines in Germany have approx.

71,5 km distance (Longitude meridian distance
is: a = cos(50°) × 2 × π × r/360° = 71,5 km at r
= 6.370 km).
Coordinate Examples
Munich: 48°9'N, 11°35'E
Bremen: 53°4'N, 8°48'E
Geographical Coordinates: Latutide and Longitude

Latitude/Breite (φ = 0° to ± 90°) Longitude/Länge (λ = 0° to 180°)

A distance of 1° at the Equator

Is ≈ 111 km

1 Minute = 1/60° ≈ 1.86 km

A distance of 1° at 50°
North is ≈ 71.7 km

Hotchkiss, 1999
Geographical Coordinate System
Logitude and Latitude- Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)
Geographical Coordinate System
Logitude and Latitude- Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

Latitude: 08° 43´ XX,X´´ + (?cm = ?) = 08° 43´ ??,?´´

(on the Map 4.7cm beween 43´and 44´)

Longitude: 51° 22´ YY,Y´´+ (?cm = ?) = 51° 22´ ??.?´´

(on the Map 7.5cm beween 22´and 23´)

Geographical Coordinate System
Logitude and Latitude- Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

Latitude: 08° 43´ XX,X´´ + (2.0 cm = 42.6) = 08° 43´ 42,6´´

(on the Map 4.7cm beween 43´and 44´ so 100/4.7 x 2=42.6)

Longitude: 51° 22´ YY,Y´´+ (1.0 cm = 13.4) = 51° 22´ 13.3´´

(on the Map 7.5cm beween 22´and 23´ so 100/7.5 x 1.0 =13.3)
Preparation of Topographic Maps

- Projection Types
Map Projections:

• Geometric-mathematical arrangement of lines;

• The attempt to project the 3-dimentional gradient net of the curved globe into
a 2-dimetional map.

The charicteristics of angles, areas,

lengths and directions should be
reproduced on the map as unchanged
as possible.
However, the mapping process always
leads to distortions of conformity,
distance, direction and/or size.
Classification of the Map Projections from the Projection Centre:
There are a large number of map projections, but not all are true projections in the sense that
they can be represented by rays of light that shin through or illuminate a globe. Many important
projections are obtained mathematically. There are 3 main groups of real projections:

Gnomonic Projection
The oldest map projection. It is the projection from the centre of a
sphere to a plane tangent to the sphere. The sphere and the plane
touch at the tangent point. (Greeks)

Stereographic Projection
Also known as the planisphere projection ie. It projects the sphere
onto a plane. (Egyptians)

Orthographic Projection
It is a form of parallel projection where the projection lines are
orthogonal to the projection plane.
Conic Projection A cone touches the Earth at the northern or southern latitudes.
When the cone is „unrolled“ the line of tangency becomes the central
or standard parallel of the region mapped. All parallels are arcs of
concentric circles. The meridians are the straight lines drawn from
the cone´s vertex to the divisions of the standard parallel.
Pattern of Distortion:
In the cone projection, the surface of the Earth to be mapped, is projected
onto an envelop cone:
In the simple Tangent Cone, the projection cone only touches the Earth´s surface
on one plane, which forms the one standard parallel. A defined area N and S pf the
reference latitude is mapped onto the cone surface. The projection is distortion-free
along the reference latitude, but the distortion increases proportionally with
distance from the reference latitude.

In the case of a Secant Cone, the projection cone intersects the Earth´s
surface to produce two standard parallels. A defined stripe between the two
degrees of latitude is then mapped onto the cone envelope. The projection is
distortion-free at these two latitudes, but not in between.
 Azimutal projection with different positions
All points on the map are proportionally correct distances from the centre point and all
points on the map are at the correct azimuth (direction) from the centre point.
Location/Aspect Description

normal or north pole The axis of the auxiliary body

corresponds to the Earth´s axis.

transversally or The axis of the auxiliary body

transversely equatorial is perpendicular to the Earth´s
axis.

oblique The axis of the auxiliary body

is inclined to the Earth´s
axis.
 English: Cartesian Coordinate System
(Easting and Northing)

German: Gauss-Krüger-Coordinate System

(Hoch- und Rechtswerte)

The Cartesian (or Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System enables small areas of the Earth
to be located conformally (angularly) with metric coordinates (easting and northing). It
is a true-angle transverse cylinder image (transverse Mercator projection).
Mercator-Projection

Die Mercator-Projection (cylindrical

projection; after G. Mercator, 1512-
1594) is a true-angle map projection
that is used for navigation in sea-
faring. It allows a straight course to
be represented as a line.

A cylinder touching the Equator is

placed around the Earth.
Distortions increase towards the
North- and South Poles.
Distortion caused by the Mercator-Projection

Minimal Distortion Intermediate Distortion Maximum Distortion

Transverse Mercator-Projection

The transverse Mercator-Projection served as the

basis for the (from C.F. Gauß :1827-1860) Hanover
State topographical survey. J.H.L. Krüger (1857-1923)
transferred the Gauß- mapping system onto the
surface of a rotational ellipsoid (the Earth). The
projection method is the basis of many modern
topgraphical map series and was introduced in
Germany, in 1927, as the official „Gauss-Krüger“
surveying method.

With the transversal Mercator-Projection, the 3-D surface of

the Earth can largely be drawn on a flat plane with equal area.
The Meridians appear on the map as straight rays centered on
the Pole. The circles of latitude are shown as concentric and
parallel partial circles with the pole at the centre.

The distortion increases with increasing north/south latitudes.

The transversal Mercator-Projection is therefore not useful for
depicting the Polar regions.
The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System
‚Greenwich‘

Geopraphical Longitude
9°

Equator

Mittel-
Middle Meridian
meridian
Meridian strips

→ 3° Meridian
The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System

Only 3oE, 6oE, 9oE, 12oE, 15oE, 18oE and 21oE are used as main
meridians. Each Meridian-strip extends1o30' East and 1o30' West of
2. Main Meridian
ist Main- meridian.

The numbers result form taking the reference meridians from 3oE
to 21oE from W to E (1-7). This index is the first value (precedes)
of the coordinate.

The first value of the coordinate is the so-called easting (R).

The first digit of R is the index of the reference meridian, the
following six digits show the E-W distance from the reference
meridian (which is assigned the value 500 km).

The second value of the coordinate consists of seven digits and

is called northing (H). It describes the north distance of the
position (in meters) from the equator.

The unit of northing and easting is meters.

 Northing

= Distance from the Equator in metres

An example:
H = 5562380 is 5.562.380 m = 5562,380 km north of the Equator
The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System

Easting/Rechtswert related to the main

meridian (every 3° Longitude)

Main meridian 0° 3° 6° 9°
Basis for Easting (R) 0 1 2 3

From main meridian in E` or W` direction

500.000m (= 500km). If the number is less than
5 then it is West-bound, if it is greater than 5,
then it is East-bound.

Beispiele:
P1: 1412863 lies 87,137km west of 1. main
meridian (3° E)
(500,000m – 412,863m = 87,137km )

P2: 1587137 lies 87.137km east of

1. Main meridian (3° E)
(500,000m + 87,137km = 587,137m )

http://www.geologie.uni-freiburg.de/root/blackboard/karten/karten.html
The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System
Northing (H)- and Easting (R) - Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)
The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System
Northing (H)- and Easting (R) - Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

Northing (Hochwert): 56?? + (?cm = ?m) = 56?????

= ????,??? km from the Equator

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m)

Easting (Rechtswert): 34?? + (?cm = ?m) = 34?????

→ 500.000 – ???,??? = ??,??? km westlich des 3. Hauptmeridians = 9° E

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m)

The Cartesian (Gauss-Krüger) Coordinate System
Northing (H)- and Easting (R) - Exercise

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

Northing (Hochwert): 5692 + (2,83cm = 708m) = 5692708

= 5692,708 km from the Equator

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m, therefore 1000/4=250m x 2.83cm= 708m)

Easting (Rechtswert): 3480 + (3,3cm = 825m) = 3480825

→ 500.000 – 480,825 = 19,175 km westlich des 3. Hauptmeridians = 9° E

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m, therefore 1000/4=250m x 3.3cm= 825m)
 Overlaps

Rechtswert

Hochwert

Reference Reference
meridian meridian
 Easting (Rechtswert)

Northing
(Hochwert)

Topographic
Maps

Grid

Legende North Scale Overview

Ferguson, 1989
Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM)-System
The Universal Transversal Mercator Grid
(UTM-Grid) is a metric, 2-D and square
coordinate system. It is based on the
German Gauß-Krüger-System. The
UTM-System uses a total of 60 Meridian
strips. Each strip is a 6°-Latitude
segment of the Earth. This system used
a cylinder around the Earth for its map
projection. The cylinder is transversal (ie
the cylinder is placed on its side:
transversal Mercator projection). The
UTM places the cylinder 60x for each
UTM zone, each time rotating it slightly to
use a different meridian as a central line.
The strips cover the area from 80°S to
84°N.

The UTM-System was developed to

make an International system.
Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM)-System Exercise:

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)
Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM)-System Exercise:

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

N: 56??N + (?cm = ?m) = ???????N

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m)

E: 4??E + (?cm = ?m) = ??????E

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m)

Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM)-System Exercise:

Adorf Map: Locate „Hohes Rad“

(on a tongue of land surrounded by the Diemelsee, 406,1 m)

N: 5690N + (3.5cm = 875m) = 5690875N

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m, therefore 1000/4=250m x 3.5cm=875m)

E: 480E + (3cm = 750m) = 480750E

(1cm Map is 250m Nature so 4cm is 1000m, therefore 1000/4=250m x 3cm= 750m)
 Maps and Orientation

Grid North vs True North vs Magnetic North

Map Orientation:

Geographical-North
Magnetic-North North Pole, rotation
axis
Declination:
deviation
Geographical-North und Magnetic-North
Grid-North
Geodetic north
Map North Compass Needle Deviation:
Angle between
Magnetic-North und Grid-North

Meridian Convergence:
Mag. N Git. N Geo. N
The angle between
Meridian
Geographical-North und Grid-North
Compass Needle Convergence:
Deviation:
Declination:

http://www.geologie.uni-freiburg.de
/root/blackboard/karten/karten.html
The Earth´s Magnetic Field:
Dipole Field:
- The magnetic axis (MAGNETIC NORTH) is inclined by 11.5° to the rotational axis
(TRUE NORTH).
- The Artic Magnetic North-Pole = 84°N, 120°W; the Antarctic Magnetic South-Pol =
64°S, 138°E Magnetic North Grid North
Declination Geographical North

Compass Needle Meridian convergence

Deviation
Declination: deviation between Geographical N - Magnetic N (present day approx. -1.36°)

Compas Needle Deviation: Magnetic N - Grid N

Inclination: inclination of the magnetic field lines

(in Bremen approx. 68°)
 Topographic Map

Magnetic
North Grid North
Declination Geographical
North

Compass Meridian
Needle convergence
Deviation
Topographic Elevation

- The 3rd-Dimension
Topographic Map
 Contour Lines
1440

Contous lines 1400

Convex
Elevation lines
are horizontal 1360

Profile
1320
close together
plane 1280
= Steep
intersection 1240

1200 topographic
lines of the Concave
1160

topography. 1120

Map

1400 1200

Isohypse = a line on a map that connects points of both equal hight and
equal barometric pressure, such as an isobar on a hight chart.
 Topographic Profile

http://www.geologie.uni-freiburg.de/root/blackboard/karten/karten.html
 Draw a Topographic Profile:
1. Draw the horizontal & vertical reference scale onto mm-Papier

200 500 m

A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600

A B

600
500 m
400

200
 2. Fold the Papier...

200 500 m

A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600

A B

600
500 m
400

200
200
... Lie the folded paper on the topographic map
A B

600 200 500 mm

500
400

200
A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600

A B

600
500 m
400

200
3. Mark the elevation contours onto your scale
A B

600 200 500 mm

500
400

200
A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600
 4. Draw in the Profile line
A B

600 200 500 mm

500
400

200
A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600
 5. Rub out the „help“ lines
A B

600 200 500 mm

500
400

200
A B
300
500 500
400 300
700
400 600
600

A B

600
500 m
400

200
Map Exercise 1a

Draw the Profie A-B with a vertical

scale 1:20,000!
How big is the vertical exaggeration?

Vertical Exaggeration = ratio of the

Vertical scale to the horizontal scale
 Making a Topographic Profile
• Draw the profile line on the map. Mark the end points of the
profile (I-II)
• Draw the baseline and vertical scale on mm-Paper. Mark the
end points (I-II). Fold the paper on the line.
• Place the folded mm-paper on the line draw on the map so that
the end points match (I-II). Mark the intersection/elevation
points with the contour lines from the map.
• Draw a vertical line from the intersection/elevation points to the
correct high on the profile (use the vertical scale).
• Join the elevation points together, Label the profile direction ie
N,S,E,W, etc.
• Write the scale and vertical exaggeration
• Mark/label prominent points, label, title, name etc.
 Map Exercise 1a
Think of geological mapping as NEXT LEVEL dot-to-dot !!!!!
ie you have to find the dots before you can joint them to discover the picture!