Antiderivative: An antiderivative of a function f is a differentiable function F whose derivative is

equal to the original function f.

𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇔ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

Constant of integration: a constant added to the end of an antiderivative of a function f to

indicate that the indefinite integral of f is only defined up to an additive constant
●​ C: the constant of integration
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥) ⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐶

The constant of integration is needed since the constant term is ignored during the
differentiation.

Ex:
3 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
2 2
𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑔'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2

The derivative and the antiderivative are the inverse operations to each other.
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
●​ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶

The basic formulas of antiderivatives can be proven by taking the derivatives of the functions.

Basic formulas of antiderivatives:

1.​ ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑
a.​ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶) = 𝑘
𝑛 1 𝑛+1
2.​ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
𝑥 +𝐶

a.​
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 ( 1
𝑛+1
𝑥
𝑛+1
+𝐶 =) 1
𝑛+1
𝑛
(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑛

3.​ ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

a.​
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 ( ) (
𝑘∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 )
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

4.​ ∫{𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

 𝑑 ⎰ ⎱ 𝑑
a.​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫{𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ⎱ ⎰ 𝑑𝑥

Case: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶1 + 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶2 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶

In the above scenario, two functions are being integrated, but only one constant of integration.
This is because the constant C can be any real value, making addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc meaningless.

For the antiderivative, the following is not true: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 × ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

●​ If the two functions f and g are simple like polynomials, then multiply both functions and
then integrate.

Let’s assume a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then there exist two antiderivatives
F and G of the function f on this interval.

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶, 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = [𝐺(𝑏) + 𝐶] − [𝐺(𝑎) + 𝐶] = 𝐺(𝑏) − 𝐺(𝑎)

This shows that if the interval is given, then the constant of the integration can be ignored as it
does not affect the outcome. The above result is called the definite integral of the function f over
the interval [a, b].
𝑏
●​ 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Basic properties of definite integral:

𝑎
1.​ ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎
2.​ ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 =− ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

The magnitude of the result of the definite integral is equal to the area surrounded by the
interval [a, b], the function f, and the x-axis. If the area is above the x-axis, the definite integral is
positive, and if not, the definite integral is negative.

How to find the total area:

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫|𝑓| 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Basic equations:
𝑏 𝑏
1.​ ∫ 𝑘𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑏
a.​ ∫ 𝑘𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑘𝐹]𝑎 = 𝑘𝐹(𝑏) − 𝑘𝐹(𝑎) = 𝑘{𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)} = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
2.​ ∫(𝑓 ± 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
𝑏
a.​ ∫(𝑓 ± 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹 ± 𝐺]𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) ± 𝐺(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) ∓ 𝐺(𝑎)
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
= {𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)} ± {𝐺(𝑏) − 𝐺(𝑎)} = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
3.​ ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐
𝑏 𝑐
a.​ ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹]𝑎 + [𝐹]𝑏 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐹(𝑐) − 𝐹(𝑏) = 𝐹(𝑐) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐
b.​ = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

The area surrounded by a quadratic function:

β β β
2 3 2
1
{
∫ 𝑎(𝑥 − α)(𝑥 − β) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑥 − (α + β)𝑥 + αβ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎⎡ 3 𝑥 −
⎣ } α+β
2
𝑥 + αβ𝑥⎤
⎦α
α α

=𝑎 { (β
1
3
3
) − α+β
−α2 (
β − α ) + αβ(β − α)}
2 3 2

= 𝑎(β − α){ 3 (β + αβ + α ) − 2 (α + 2αβ + β ) + }

1 2 2 1 2 2
αβ
2 2 3
= 6 𝑎(β − α)(− β + 2αβ − α ) = 6 (β − α)
1 −𝑎
Odd function: 𝑓(− 𝑥) =− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎
●​ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−𝑎 0

Even function: 𝑓(− 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑎
●​ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
−𝑎

The definite integral of a piecewise function:

●​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏), 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) (𝑏 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐)
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
●​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏

A function defined by integral:

𝑏
●​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎
𝑥
●​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 → 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑎

Derivative of integral:
𝑥
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎

∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑡) + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
{𝐹(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑎)} = 𝑑𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑎

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑
Chain rule: 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔'(𝑥)𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − ℎ'(𝑥)𝑓(ℎ(𝑥))
ℎ(𝑥)

𝑏
1
The average value over an interval: 𝑦 = 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑥
1 𝐹(𝑥)−𝐹(𝑎)
Taking limits of the average value: lim 𝑥−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑥−𝑎
= 𝐹'(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 𝑏 𝑑
It is possible to take the definite integral about the y-axis: 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐

Functions f and g have to be inverse functions of each other in the above case.
●​ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥

The area between two functions:

1.​ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑏
a.​ 𝑆 = ∫{𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2.​ 𝑦 ∈ [𝑐, 𝑑], 𝑓(𝑦) ≥ 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑
a.​ 𝑆 = ∫{𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)} 𝑑𝑦
𝑐

Tips when solving a definite integral problem:

1.​ Try to find two areas with the same magnitude and opposite signs.
2.​ Try to find the integral of an inverse function.
3.​ Divide an interval into multiple parts if the function is not differentiable at some points.
4.​ The intersection between a function and an inverse function lies on the graph of y = x.
𝑥
5.​ When 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 happens, try to separate the x from the function f.
𝑎