FEEE_Unit 3
FEEE_Unit 3
Diode
Prof.Mrs. Mrunal S. aware
Department of Computer Engineering
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Points to be Covered
• Rectifier and Filters
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Rectifier
• What is Rectifier?
A Rectifier is an electrical device that is made of one or more than one diodes that
converts the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
• What is Rectification?
Rectification is the process of conversion of the alternating current (which
periodically changes direction) into direct current (flow in a single direction).
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Need of Rectifier circuit
• All battery operated charging devices or applications need DC supply.
• But, the electric supply we get at our home is AC. The AC voltage varies
sinusoidally with the frequency of 50Hz.
• It is used for lighting, heating , in industries , to drive electric motors etc.
• There are many devices as Mobile chargers ,laptop chargers requires DC supply .
• We use one device for charging them known as adapter.
• It contains a rectifier along with other electronic components to convert and
step down an AC 220V to a DC 5V.
• When such Dc supply is required, the mains AC supply is rectified using PN diode
/crystal diode or semiconductor diode .
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Classification of Rectifier Circuits
• Half wave rectifier only converts half of the AC wave into DC signal, hence
the name is HWR.
• Whereas Full wave rectifier converts complete AC signal into DC, hence
the name is FWR.
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Half Wave Rectifier
Output Waveform
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HWR Working:
• During the positive half cycle, the diode
terminal anode will become positive and
the cathode will become negative known as forward
bias. And it will allow the positive cycle to flow
through.
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HWR Working:
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HWR Advantages :
• Half wave rectifier is a simple circuit.
• It has a low cost.
• We can easy to use it.
• We can easily construct.
• It has a low number of component, therefore it is cheap.
HWR Disadvantages:
• It has a high ripple factor.
• It has low rectification efficiency.
• It has a low transformer utilization factor.
• Power is only provided by the AC supply during the half cycle. Therefore, the power output is low.
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Center-Tap transformer
• A center-tap transformer is a dual-voltage
transformer that has two inputs (I1 & I2) and three
output terminals (T1, T2, T3).
• The T2 terminal is connected to the center of the
output coil which acts as a reference ground (o volt
reference).
• The T1 terminal produces positive voltage and
the T3 terminal produces negative voltage with
respect to the T2.
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Center-Tap Rectifier
• This type of full-wave rectifier uses a center-tap transformer & two diodes as shown in the
circuit diagram.
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Center-Tap Rectifier Working:
• During the input positive half cycle, the T1
will produce positive and T3 will produce a
negative voltage. The diode D1 will become
forward bias & diode D2 will become reverse
bias. This makes a close path from T1 to T2
through the load resistor RL as shown below.
• Now during the input negative half cycle, T1
will generate negative cycle & T3 will
generate a positive cycle. This will put the
diode D1 into reverse bias & diode D2 in
forward bias. But the polarity across the load
resistor RL is still the same as the current
takes the path from T3 to T2 as shown in the
figure below.
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Center-Tap Rectifier Working:
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Center-Tap Rectifier
Input / Output Waveform
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Advantages of a center-tapped FWR:
• The ripple factor is much less than that of a half-wave rectifier.
• The DC output voltage and DC load current value are twice those of a half-wave rectifier.
• The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier is double of that of a half-wave rectifier.
• The output efficiency is high because the AC supply delivers power during both half cycles.
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Bridge Rectifier
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Bridge Rectifier:
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Advantages of bridge rectifier:
• The need for the center-tapped transformer is eliminated. The transformer used in bridge rectifier is
less costly.
• The size of the transformer used in a bridge rectifier is smaller than that in the center tap transformer.
• The dc output voltage is twice that of the center-tapper FWR.
• Transformer utilization factor, in case of the bridge rectifier, is higher than that of a center tap rectifier.
• The PIV is one half that of centre-tap rectifier. Hence bridge rectifier is highly suited for high voltage
applications.
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Performance parameters of rectifier:
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The maximum voltage which appears across reverse
biased diode is referred as Peak Inverse Voltage of diode.
• Ripple factor: This can be defined as the ratio of the effective value of ac
component of voltage or current to the direct value or average value.
The effectiveness of rectifier depends upon the magnitude of the ripple in the
output.
If Ripple factor is small, less effect of ac component and hence more effective is
the rectifier .
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Performance parameters of rectifier:
• Rectifier efficiency (η): It is the ratio between the output DC power and the input AC
power.
• Form Factor : It is the ratio between RMS value and average value, as shown in the
formula below:
FF is a measure of the shape of the output voltage. If the output voltage is pure DC
then 𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔→ FF=1
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Performance parameters of rectifier:
• Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): It is defined as the ratio of DC power output
of a rectifier to the AC power rating of the transformer
TUF = PDC / PAC( rated )
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Comparison of rectifiers
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Comparison of Rectifiers
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Pulsating DC signal
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Pulsating DC signal
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Pulsating DC signal
• Pulsating direct current is a type of DC current whose value
changes over short period OR Value of pulsating DC voltage slightly
changes over a period of time .
• By using combination of components such as capacitors, inductors,
resistors in the circuit ,we can achieve the smoothing of pulsating DC
to pure DC (i.e. Filter circuit ).
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Filter Circuit
• A filter circuit is one which removes the ac component present in the rectified output
and allows the dc component to reach the load.
• Some of the important filters are given below:
L Filter (Series Inductor Filter)
C Filter (Shunt Capacitor Filter)
L-C Filter
C-L-C Filter (Π Filter/Pi Filter)
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L Filter (Series Inductor Filter)
• As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be
constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load.
The figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.
• The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac
components that are present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc. This is a
simple primary filter.
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L Filter (Series Inductor Filter)
• Advantages
Low ripple factor at heavy load currents.
No surge current through diode.
Reduces ripple in the o/p.
• Disadvantages
It is bulky.
It is more costly.
Ripple factor is poor at light loads (small load current).
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C Filter (Shunt Capacitor Filter)
• As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor Filter
can be constructed using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the following
figure.
• The rectified output when passed through this filter, the ac components present in the
signal are grounded through the capacitor which allows ac components. The remaining
dc components present in the signal are collected at the output.
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C Filter (Shunt Capacitor Filter)
• Advantages
Easy to design.
Reduction in ripple content of the o/p voltage.
Increase in the average load voltage.
Small size and low cost.
• Disadvantages
Ripple factor is dependent on the load.
Regulation is relatively poor.
Diodes have to handle large peak currents.
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L-C Filter
• A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to obtain a better
output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be used. The figure below
shows the circuit diagram of a LC filter.
• The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows dc components to pass
through it, blocking the ac components in the signal. Now, from that signal, few more ac
components if any present are grounded so that we get a pure dc output.
• This filter is also called as a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the inductor. The
output of this filter is a better one than the previous ones.
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L-C Filter
• Advantages
Very good load regulations.
Ripple factor is low and does not depend on the load.
This filter is suitable for light as well as heavy loads.
Diodes do not have to carry surge current.
• Disadvantages (LC)
Audible noise is produced by the inductor.
Large values of L and C makes ckt costly.
Due to use of inductor the filter is bulky.
Power loss takes place in the series inductor L due to its dc resistance.
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C-L-C Filter (Π Filter/Pi Filter)
• This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor at
its input and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors and
one inductor are connected in the form of π shaped network. A capacitor in parallel,
then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes this circuit.
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C-L-C Filter cont…
Working of CLC filter:
• Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to dc and low reactance to ac
signal. After grounding the ac components present in the signal, the signal passes to the
inductor for further filtration.
• Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to dc components, while blocking the
ac components if any got managed to pass, through the capacitor C1.
• Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so that it
allows any ac component present in the signal, which the inductor has failed to block.
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C-L-C Filter
• Advantages
Same as those of shunt capacitor filter.
In addition to that the ripple factor is very low.
High dc voltage (approx Vm)
• Disadvantages
It is bulky due to use of inductance.
Costly due to more number of components.
Current rating of choke needs to be high.
Power loss takes place in the inductor.
High peak diode current.
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Regulated Power Supply
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Regulated Power Supply
A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a constant
DC (Direct Current). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains
constant even if the input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear
power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.
The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:
• Step-down transformer
• Rectifier
• DC filter
• Regulator
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Operation of Regulated Power Supply
Step Down Transformer
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required
voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is
unidirectional pulsating DC.
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Operation of Regulated Power Supply
DC Filtration
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple
content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC waveform. Hence a filter is
used. Different types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π
type filter.
Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will
change or fluctuate when there is a change in the input from ac mains or due to change in
load current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like
temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will
maintain the output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur.
Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the
zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX (such as
the IC 7805) are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output.
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Clipper and Clamper Circuits
• These circuits are applications of P-N Junction diodes.
• Clipper Circuits are used to clip off a portion of wave from an input signal Main
element is diode and it is used in two ways series and parallel.
• Types of Clipper Circuit: Series Positive Clipper, Series Negative Clipper, Shunt
Negative Clipper and Shunt Positive Clipper.
• Clamper Circuits clamp a signal to different dc level. Along with diodes,
capacitors and resistors are also used.
• Types of Clampers Circuit: Positive Clamper and Negative Clamper.
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Series Clipper Circuits
Series Clipper Circuit
• First introduced as a half-wave rectifier for sinusoidal waveforms.
•Any type of signals that can be applied to a clipper i.e. Sinusoidal, Square,
Triangular, sawtooth etc.
• In Series Positive Clipper, the diode is connected in series with the output in
Reverse Biasing.
•In Series Negative Clipper, the diode is connected in series with the output in
Forward Biasing.
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Series Positive Clipper
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Series Positive Clipper
• In series positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input AC signal is removed.
• If the diode is arranged in such a way that the arrowhead of the diode points towards the
input and the diode is in series with the output load resistance, then the clipper is said to be a
series positive clipper.
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal A is connected to n-side and the negative terminal B is connected to p-
side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the positive half cycle.
• During reverse biased condition, no current flows through the diode. So the positive half
cycle is blocked or removed at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, terminal A is negative and terminal B is positive. That means
the negative terminal A is connected to n-side and the positive terminal B is connected to p-
side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during the negative half cycle.
• During forward biased condition, electric current flows through the diode. So the negative
half cycle is allowed at the output.
• Thus, a series of positive half cycles are completely removed at the output.
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Series Negative Clipper
B
Fig. A: Series Negative Clipper Circuit Diagram Fig. B: Input and Output Waveforms
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Series Negative Clipper
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That
means the positive terminal A is connected to p-side and the negative terminal B is
connected to n-side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during the
positive half cycle.
• During forward biased condition, electric current flows through the diode. So the positive
half cycle is allowed at the output. Therefore, a series of positive half cycles appears at the
output.
• During the negative half cycle, the terminal A is negative and the terminal B is positive.
That means the negative terminal A is connected to p-side and the positive terminal B is
connected to n-side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the
negative half cycle.
• During reverse biased condition, no current flows through the diode. So the negative half
cycle is completely blocked or removed at the output. In other words, a series of negative
half cycles are removed at the output.
• Thus, the series negative clipper removes the series of negative half cycles.
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Shunt Clipper Circuits
Shunt Clipper Circuit
• First introduced as a half-wave rectifier for sinusoidal waveforms.
•Any type of signals that can be applied to a clipper i.e. Sinusoidal, Square,
Triangular, sawtooth etc.
•In shunt negative clipper and shunt positive clipper, the diode is connected in
parallel with the output load resistance.
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Shunt Positive Clipper
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Shunt Positive Clipper
• In shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance. The
operating principles of the shunt clipper are nearly opposite to the series clipper.
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means the
positive terminal A is connected to p-side and the negative terminal B is connected to n-side of
the diode. Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during the positive half cycle and hence no
output is generated.
• During the negative half cycle, the terminal A is negative and the terminal B is positive. That
means the negative terminal A is connected to p-side and the positive terminal B is connected
to n-side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the negative half cycle
and hence the entire negative half cycle appears at the output.
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Shunt Negative Clipper
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Shunt Negative Clipper
• In shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance. The
operating principles of the shunt clipper are nearly opposite to the series clipper.
• During the positive half cycle, the terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal A is connected to n-side and the negative terminal B is connected to p-side
of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and hence
the entire negative half cycle appears at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, terminal A is negative and the terminal B is positive. That
means the positive terminal B is connected to p-side and the negative terminal A is connected
to n-side of the diode. Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during the positive half cycle
and hence no output is generated.
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Clamper Circuits
• A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the
desired level without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words,
the clamper circuit moves the whole signal up or down to set either the
positive peak or negative peak of the signal at the desired level.
• Clamper is made up of a voltage source Vi, capacitor C, diode D, and load
resistor RL.
• The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the
input signal. A positive clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the
input signal to push it to the positive side. Similarly, a negative clamper circuit
adds the negative dc component to the input signal to push it to the negative
side.
• Types of Clampers are Positive Clamper and Negative Clamper.
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Positive Clamper
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Positive Clamper
During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and hence no
signal appears at the output. In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current through it.
This current will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input voltage Vm. The
capacitor charged in inverse polarity (positive) with the input voltage. As input current or voltage
decreases after attaining its maximum value -Vm, the capacitor holds the charge until the diode
remains forward biased.
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and hence the signal
appears at the output. In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow electric current through it.
So the input current directly flows towards the output.
When the positive half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the charge stored in
the capacitor is discharged (released). Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output is equal to the sum
of the voltage stored in the capacitor (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm){ I.e. Vo = Vm+ Vm = 2Vm} which
have the same polarity with each other. As a result, the signal shifted upwards.
The peak to peak amplitude of the input signal is 2Vm, similarly the peak to peak amplitude of the
output signal is also 2Vm. Therefore, the total swing of the output is same as the total swing of the
input.
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Negative Clamper
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Negative Clamper
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and hence no signal
appears at the output. In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current through it. This current
will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input voltage in inverse polarity -Vm. As
input current or voltage decreases after attaining its maximum value Vm, the capacitor holds the charge
until the diode remains forward biased.
During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and hence the signal
appears at the output. In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow electric current through it. So
the input current directly flows towards the output.
When the negative half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the charge stored in the
capacitor is discharged (released). Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output is equal to the sum of the
voltage stored in the capacitor (-Vm) and the input voltage (-Vm) {I.e. Vo = -Vm- Vm = -2Vm} which
have the same polarity with each other. As a result, the signal shifted downwards.
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Difference between clipper and clamper circuit.
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Thank you !!
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