SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population, which is

an entire aggregate of cases.
Why do we need to sample?
There are various advantages of sampling, as given below
1. The ideal solution to know the true or actual values of the different
parameters of the population would be to take into account the entire
population. However, that is not
feasible due to cost, time, labor and other constraints, hence sampling is
more
economical
2. Execution of the field work and the analysis of result can be carried out
much faster and hence very less time is consumed on the other hand if we
have to gather information about the whole population, we may not be able
to have the information collected on time and the entire study may become
redundant
3. It is used in Clinical trials for safety purposes
4. The number of staff required for gathering data, analyses and preparation
of the report will be minimal
5. Sampling provides adequate information needed. The sampling
techniques make it
possible to quantify the magnitude of possible error.
Criteria for good sampling:
1. An element is the basic unit about which information is collected—usually
humans in
nursing research.
2. The criteria that specify population characteristics are the eligibility
criteria (or
inclusion criteria). Researchers usually sample from an accessible
population, but
should identify the target population to which they would like to generalize
their
results.
3. The main consideration in assessing a sample in a quantitative study is its
representativeness— the extent to which the sample is similar to the
population and
avoids bias. Sampling bias refers to the systematic over-representation or
under-
Adequate: the size is sufficient so as to provide confidence in the stability of
the
characteristics and results
4. representation of some segment of the population
THE SAMPLING PROCESS
There are seven steps involved in this process
Step 1: define the population
It is the aggregate of all elements, usually defined prior to the selection of
the sample.
The population is said to be completely defined if at least the following terms
are
specified;
I) Elements
II) Sampling units
III) Extent
IV) Time
Step 2: identify the sampling frame:
The sampling frame should be selected. This consists of almost all the
sampling units. Though it is not possible to have one-to-one correspondence
between frame units and sampling units, however we should choose a
sampling frame which yields unbiased estimates with a variance as low as
possible. Popularly known sampling frames are: census reports, electoral
registers, lists of member units of trade and industry associations, lists of
members of professional bodies, list of dwelling units maintained by local
bodies, returns form an earlier survey and large scale maps etc.
Step 3: specify the sampling units: The sampling unit is the basic unit
containing the elements of target population.
Step 4: specify the sampling method: The sampling method indicates how
the sample units are selected. The most important decision in this regard is
to determine which of the two-probability of non-probability sample to be
chosen
Step 5: determine the sample size (n): The decision about the number of
elements to be chosen i.e. number of observation in each sample (n) of the
target population.
Step 6: specify the sampling plan: This means that one should indicate how
decisions made so far are to be implemented. All expected pertinent issues
in a sampling survey must be answered by sampling plan
Step 7: select the sample: This is the final step in the sampling process. A
good deal of field work and office work is introduced in the actual selection of
the sample-elements. However it depends mainly upon the sampling plan
and the sample size required.
TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS/TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of sampling methods: Probability and Non
probability sampling methods.
Probability sampling designs involve the random selection of elements
from the population.
• The probability or chance of every unit in the population being included in
the sample is known
• Selection of the specific units in the sample depends entirely on chance
Non-probability sample
• The probability of inclusion of any unit (of population) in a sample is not
known
• The selection of units within a sample involves human judgment rather
than pure chance
PROBABILTY SAMPLING METHODS
The major sampling methods under the probability sampling methods are
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Systematic sampling
A. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Simple random sampling is the simplest type of sampling, in which we draw
a sample of
size (n) in such a way that each of the ‘N’ members of the population has the
same
chance of being included in the sample. Every person has an equal chance of
being
selected. It is best when a list of the population exists
How to do it
Select sampling frame
Generate random numbers using a computer and select units corresponding
to each
number
Selection of random samples
One way of drawings a simple random sample is to number every individual,
put the
numbers on piece of paper and draw ballots. But such a procedure is
impracticable in
most situations. A more convenient method is to use a table of random
digits.
Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into two or
more strata. The aim of stratified sampling is to enhance representativeness.
Stratified sampling designs subdivide the
population into homogeneous subsets from which an appropriate number of
elements are selected at random. Stratification is often based on such
demographic attributes as age, gender, and income level. One difficulty is
that the stratifying attributes must be known in advance and may not be
readily discernible.
Cluster Sampling
For many populations, it is impossible to obtain a listing of all elements for
the purpose of drawing a simple or stratified random sample. In cluster
sampling, there is a successive random sampling of units. The first unit is
large groupings, or clusters. The usual procedure for selecting samples from
a general population is to sample successively because of the successive
stages in cluster sampling, this approach is often called multistage
sampling. The resulting design is usually described in terms of the number
of stages (e.g., three-stage cluster sampling). The clusters can be selected
either by simple or stratified methods It might also be prohibitively
expensive to sample students in this way because the resulting sample
would include only one or two students per
Systematic Sampling
The final sampling design can be either probability or nonprobability
sampling, depending on the exact procedure used. Systematic sampling
involves the selection of every kth case from a list
or group, such as every 10th person on a patient list or every 100th person
Systematic sampling can be applied so that an essentially random sample is
drawn. If we had a list, or sampling frame, the following procedure could be
adopted. The desired sample size is established at some number (n). The
size of the population must be known or estimated (N). By dividing N by n,
the sampling interval width (k) is established. The sampling interval is the
standard distance between elements chosen for the sample. For instance, if
we were seeking a sample of 100 from a population of 40,000, then our
sampling interval would be as follows. In other words, every 400th element
on the list would be sampled. The first element should be selected randomly,
using a table of random numbers Systematic sampling conducted in this
manner yields essentially the same results as simple random sampling, but
involves far less work. Problems would arise if the list were arranged in such
a way that a certain type of element is listed at intervals coinciding with the
sampling interval. For instance, if every 10th nurse listed in
a nursing personnel roster were a head nurse and the sampling interval was
10, then head nurses would either always or never be included in the
sample. Problems of this type are rare, fortunately. In most cases, systematic
sampling is preferable to simple random.
The principal types of non-probability sampling (wherein elements are
selected by nonrandom methods) are convenience, quota, and purposive
sampling. Non-probability sampling designs are convenient and economical;
a major disadvantage is their potential for bias.
Convenience sampling (or accidental sampling) uses the most readily
available or most convenient group of people for the sample.
Snowball sampling is a type of convenience sampling in which referrals for
potential
participants are made by those already in the sample.
Quota sampling divides the population into homogeneous strata
(subpopulations) to ensure representation of the subgroups in the sample;
within each stratum, subjects are sampled by convenience. In purposive (or
judgmental) sampling, participants are hand-picked to be included in the
sample based on the researcher’s knowledge about the population.
Steps in Selecting a Sample-Size
An appropriate sample size is based on a number of accuracy factors that
you must consider. Together they comprise a five step process:
1. Determine Goals
2. Determine desired Precision of results
3. Determine Confidence level
4. Estimate the degree of Variability
5. Estimate the Response Rate
Step One: Determine Goals
• First, know the size of the population with which you (200people or less), it
may be preferable to do a than a sample. For a marginally higher cost than
a 134
population and gain a 0% sampling error. However, if the population from
which you want to gather information is larger, it makes
• Second, decide the methods and design of the sample you attributes or
concepts you are trying to measure.
• Third, know what kind of resources you have available, as they could be a
limitation on steps below such as your level of precision. Once you have this
information in ready to go on to the next step.
Step Two: Determine the Desired Precision of Results
The level of precision is the closeness with which the sample predicts
the population lie. The difference between the sample and the real
population is called the sampling error. If the sampling error is ±3%, this
means we add or subtract 3 percentage points from the value in the survey
to find out t value in a survey says that 65% of nurses use a particular liquid
soap, and the sampling error is ±3%, we know that in the real-world
population, between 62% and 68% are likely to use this
liquid soap. This range is also commonly referred to as the margin of error.
The level of precision you accept depends on balancing accuracy and
resources. High levels of precision require larger sample sizes and higher
costs to achieve those samples, but high margins of error can leave you with
results that are not a whole lot more meaningful than human estimation.
Step Three: Determine the Confidence Level
The confidence level involves the risk you are willing to accept that your
sample is within the average or “bell curve” of the population. A confidence
level of 90% means that, were the population sampled 100 times in the
same manner, 90 of these samples would have the true population value
within the range of precision specified earlier, and 10 would be
unrepresentative samples. Higher confidence levels require larger sample
sizes. The tables assume a 95% confidence level. This level is standard for
most social-science applications, though higher levels can be used. If the
confidence level that is chosen is too low, results will be “statistically
insignificant”.
Step Four: Estimate the Degree of Variability
Variability is the degree to which the attributes or concepts being
measured in the questions are distributed throughout the population. A
heterogeneous population divided more or less 50%-50% on an attribute or a
concept, will be harder to measure precisely than a homogeneous
population, divided say 80%-20%. Therefore, the higher the degree of
variability you expect the distribution of a concept to be in your target
audience, the larger the sample size must be to obtain the same level of
precision.
To come up with an estimate of variability, simply take a reasonable guess of
the size of the smaller attribute or concept you’re trying to measure,
rounding up if necessary. If you estimate that 25% of the population in your
county farms organically and 75% does not, then your variability would
be .25 (which rounds up to 30% on the table provided at the end). If
variability is too difficult to estimate, it is best to use the conservative figure
of 50%.
Note: when the population is extremely heterogeneous (i.e., greater than 90-
10), a larger sample may be needed for an accurate result, because the
population with the minority attribute is so low.
At this point, using the level of precision and estimate of variability you
have selected, you can use either the table or the equation provided to
determine the base sample size.
Step Five: Estimate the Response Rate
The base sample size is the number of responses you must get back when
you conduct your survey. However, since not everyone will respond, you will
need to increase your sample size, and perhaps the number of contacts you
attempt to account for these non-responses. To estimate response rate that
you are likely to get, you should take into consideration the method of your
survey and the population involved. Direct contact and multiple contacts
increase response, as does a population which is interested in the issues,
involved, or connected to the institution doing the surveying, or, limited or
specialized in character. You can also look at the rates of response
that may have occurred in similar, previous surveys.
When you have come up with an estimate of the percentage you expect to
respond, then divide the base sample size by the percentage of response.
For example, if you estimated a response rate of 70% and had a base sample
size of 220, then your final sample size would be 315 (220/0.7).
Once you have this, you are ready to begin your sampling! One final note
about response rates: the past thirty years of research have demonstrated
that the
characteristics of non-respondents may differ significantly from those of
respondents. Follow-up samples may need to be taken of the non-respondent
population to determine what differences, if any, may exist.