Concrete Technology 18CV44

Module – 3 Hardened concrete

Contents:-

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objective
3.3 Water cement ratio
3.4 Gel space ratio
3.5 Maturity of concrete
3.6 Testing of concrete
3.6.1 Compressive strength
3.6.2 Split tensile strength
3.6.3 Flexural strength
3.7 Creep
3.8 Shrinkage
3.9 Introduction to durability of concrete
3.10 Significance of durability
3.11 Factors affecting durability
3.12 Chemical actions
3.12.1 Sulphate attack
3.12.2 Chloride attack
3.12.3 Freezing and thawing effect
3.12.4 Carbonation
3.13 Non-destructive testing
3.13.1 Penetration resistance test
3.13.2 Pull out test
3.13.3 Rebound hammer test
3.13.4 Core penetration test
3.13.5 Ultra sonic pulse velocity
3.14 Assignment questions
3.15 Outcome
3.16 Future study

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3.1 Introduction

Compressive strength of concrete is one of the most important and useful property of concrete.
For a given cement, an acceptable aggregate size, the strength of the concrete developed by a
workable concrete which is properly placed and influenced by the following factors.

The factors on which the strength of concrete depends are

Ratio of cement to the water

Ratio of cement to the aggregate
Grading, surface texture, shape, strength and stiffness of the aggregate
Maximum size of aggregate

3.2 Objective

To study the mechanical properties of concrete

To study different Non-destructive tests of hardened concrete

3.3 Water Cement ratio

Strength of concrete primarily depends on strength of cement paste. The strength of cement paste
depends on dilution of paste or in other words, the strength of the paste increases with cement
content and decreases with air and water content.

Abram‟s water-cement ratio law states that the “strength of concrete only depends on water-
cement ratio provided the mix is workable”.
�
S=
Bx

Where x = water- cement ratio & A, B are constants and the values of these constants are given
below
A = 1400 lbs/sq.in
B = 7000 Pounds/sq.in

3.4 Gel space ratio

It is defined as the ratio of volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of volume of
hydrated cement paste and of capillary pores.

Calculation of gel space ratio

Case 1:- For Complete hydration

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Let C be the weight of cement in grams.

Vc be the specific volume of cement = 0.319ml/gm
Wo be the weight of mixing water in vol
Assuming that 1gm of cement on hydration will produce 2.06ml of gels
Therefore Volume of gel = C * Vc * 2.06
= C * 0.319 * 2.06
= 0.657 C
The space available = (C * Vc) + Wo
= (C * 0.319) + Wo

Volume of gel
Gel space ratio (x) =
Space available

�.��� �
x=
(� ∗ �.���) + ��

Case 2:- For partial Hydration

Let α be the fraction of cement that has hydrated.

Volume of gel becomes = C * Vc * 2.06 * α
= C * 0.319 * 2.06 * α
= 0.657 C α
Therefore total space available = (C * Vc * α) + Wo
= (C * 0.319 * α) +Wo

�.��� � �
Gel space ratio (x) =
(� ∗ �.��� ∗ �) +��

The factors that effects the strength of concrete depends on any w/c ratio are
Degree of hydration of cement
Chemical and physical properties of cement
The temperature at which the hydration takes place
Air content in case of air entrained concrete
Change in effective w/c ratio
Formation of fissures and cracks due to bleeding and segregation

3.5 Maturity of concrete

Strength development of concrete depends on both time and temperature. It can be said that,
strength of concrete is a function of summation of product of time and temperature. This
summation is called as maturity of concrete.

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Maturity of concrete = (time ∗ temperature)

The temperature is lying between -12°C to -10°C. it was experimentally found that the hydration
of the concrete continues to take place till it reaches to -11°C. Hence -11°C is taken as the datum
line for calculating the maturity value.

A sample of concrete cured at 18°C for 28 days it is treated as fully matured concrete, then its
maturity value is given by

Maturity = time ∗ temperature

= [(28 * 24) * {18-(-11)}]

= 19488°Ch

Maturity concept is useful for determining the strength of concrete at any other maturity as a
percentage of strength of concrete of known maturity.

Maturity equation:-

The strength at any maturity has percentage of strength at maturity of 19800°Ch is given by

Maturity
19800°Ch = A +B log10 ( )
1000

Where A and B are Plowman‟s co-efficient

Strength of concrete after A B

28days @18°C maturity of
19800°Ch

< 17.5 10 68

17.5-35 21 61

35-52.5 32 54

52.5-70 42 46.5

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3.6 Testing of hardened concrete

3.6.1 Compressive strength

Concrete is primarily strong in compression and in actual construction, the concrete is used in
compression. Concrete besides strong in compression is also good in other qualities. Higher the
compressive strength better is the durability. Bond strength also improves with the increase in
compressive strength and is important in R.C.C. work. Compressive strength also indicates
extent of control exercised during construction. Resistance to abrasion and volume stability
improves with the compressive strength. Test for compressive strength is, therefore, very
important in quality control of concrete. Preparation and conduct of compressive strength is
comparatively easy and give more consistent results than tensile strength or flexure strength.
This test for determining compressive strength of concrete has, therefore attained maximum
importance. For acceptance compressive strength of concrete has, therefore attained maximum
importance. For acceptance criteria, refer to IS: 456. Generally 15 cm cubes are used for testing
at 28 days.

Objective:

To determine the Compressive strength of concrete cubes.

Apparatus

Cube moulds 150 mm size as per IS: 516, Trowels, GI sheet for mixing, 16 mm dia, 400 mm
long tamping rod with bullet pointed at the lower end, Glass plate thicker than 6.5 mm or 13 mm
thick machined plate and of dimensions greater than 17.5 mm, 100 ton compression testing
machine.

Procedure

A cube specimen of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm is taken and the inner surface is oiled.
The concrete of specified designed mix is prepared and is placed inside the mould in 3 layers
and each layer is tamped with 25 numbers of blows and after tamping the last layer, top layer
is leveled by skimming off the extra material.
The concrete along with mould is allowed to dry for a day and then concrete cube is placed in
the curing tank and cubes are tested in compressive testing machine of 100 ton capacity after
specified days of curing. Usually concrete cubes are test for 3, 7, 14 and 28 days of curing.
Before testing the concrete cubes, the surface should be in saturated dry condition. The load
at which concrete specimen fails is noted as Maximum compressive force and then
compressive strength of concrete is calculated.

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ID Length Breadth Height Area Compressive

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) strength P
(MPa)

Maximum load P
Compressive strength of concrete = = N/mm2
Cross section area of specimen A

3.6.2 Split tensile strength test

The tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important properties. Splitting tensile
strength test on concrete cylinder is a method to determine the tensile strength of concrete.
The concrete is very weak in tension due to its brittle nature and is not expected to resist the
direct tension. The concrete develops cracks when subjected to tensile forces. Thus, it is
necessary to determine the tensile strength of concrete to determine the load at which the
concrete members may crack.

The test is carried out by placing concrete cylindrical specimen horizontally between the loading
surfaces of a compressive testing machine & the load is applied until the failure of the concrete
specimen takes place along vertical dia.

When the load is applied, the vertical dia of the cylindrical specimen will be subjected to a

2P D2
Vertical compressive stress = [ − 1] &
πDL r D−r
2P
Horizontal stress =
πDL

Apparatus:-

Concrete cylinder 15 cm diameter & 30cm long. The tamping bar is a steel bar of 16 mm
diameter, 60 cm long and bullet pointed at the lower end.

Procedure:-

A cylindrical specimen of size 15cm dia and 30c length is taken and the inner surface is
oiled.
The concrete of specified designed mix is prepared and is placed inside the mould in 4 layers
and each layer is tamped with 25 numbers of blows and after tamping the last layer, top layer
is leveled by skimming off the extra material.

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The concrete along with mould is allowed to dry for a day and then concrete cylinder is
placed in the curing tank and concrete cylinders are tested in compressive testing machine of
100 ton capacity after specified days of curing. Usually concrete cylinders are test for 3, 7, 14
and 28 days of curing.
Before testing the concrete cylinders, the surface should be in saturated dry condition. The
load at which concrete specimen fails is noted as Maximum compressive force and then split
tensile strength of concrete is calculated.

D = dia of cylinder in mm

L = Length of the cylinder in mm

P = Maximum load in KN

2P
Split tensile strength of concrete = N/mm2
πDL

3.6.3 Flexural Strength test

Objective:-
To determine the Flexural Strength of Concrete, which comes into play when a road slab with
inadequate sub-grade support is subjected to wheel loads and / or there are volume changes due
to temperature / shrinking.
EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS

1. Beam mould of size 15 x 15x 70 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 38 mm) or of size 10
x 10 x 50 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 19 mm)
2. Tamping bar (40 cm long, weighing 2 kg and tamping section having size of 25 mm x 25
mm)
3. Flexural test machine

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Procedure

1. Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3 layers of approximately
equal thickness. Tamp each layer 35 times using the tamping bar as specified above.
Tamping should be distributed uniformly over the entire cross-section of the beam mould
and throughout the depth of each layer.
2. Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers, and remove any loose sand
or other material from the surfaces of the specimen where they are to make contact with the
rollers.
3. Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with diameter 38 mm will be
used for providing support and loading points to the specimens. The length of the rollers
shall be at least 10 mm more than the width of the test specimen. A total of four rollers shall
be used, three out of which shall be capable of rotating along their own axes. The distance
between the outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance between the inner rollers
shall be d. The inner rollers shall be equally spaced between the outer rollers, such that the
entire system is systematic.
4. The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from water; whilst
they are still wet. The test specimen shall be placed in the machine correctly centered with
the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to the rollers. For moulded specimens,
the mould filling direction shall be normal to the direction of loading.

5. The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0 cm specimens and
at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

CALCULATION
The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by
fb = pl/bd2 (when a > 20.0cm for 15.0cm specimen or > 13.0cm for 10cm specimen) or
fb = 3pa/bd2 (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm specimen or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0cm for
10.0cm specimen.)
Where, a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the
center line of the tensile side of the specimen, b = width of specimen (cm), d = failure point
depth (cm), l = supported length (cm), p = max. Load (kg)

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3.7 Creep

• Creep can be defined as the “time dependent” part of strain resulting due to stress.

• We know that, stress-strain relationship of concrete is not a straight line relationship but a
curved one.

• The degree of curvature of stress-strain relationship mainly depends on

Intensity of stress
time for which load is acting

• Therefore relation between stress and strain is a function of time.

• The gradual increase in strain without increase in stress with respect to time is
called creep of concrete.

• Creep can also be defined as the increase in strain under sustained stress.

• All materials undergo creep under some loading conditions to a greater or smaller extent.

• Concrete creeps significantly at all stresses for a long period.

• Creep is approximately linear function of stress upto 30 to 40% of its strength.

Mechanism of creep

• Cement paste consists of unhydrated cement grains surrounded by the products of

hydration in the form of gels (C-S-H gels).

• These gels are interpenetrated by gel pores which can absorb water and interspersed by
capillary cavities.

• The process of hydration generates more no. of hydrated compounds and there will be
reduction of unhydrated cement and capillary cavities.

• In young concrete, gel pores are filled with water and capillary cavities may or may not
be filled with water.

• The movement of water held in gel and paste structure takes place under the influence of
internal and external water vapour pressure.

• The movement of water may also takes place due to sustained load on concrete.

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• The conglomerate of very fine colloidal particles with enclosed with water-filled voids
behave under the action of external forces.

• Mechanism of creep mainly based on the theory that, the colloidal particles slides against
each other to re-adjust their position displacing the water held in gel pores and capillary
cavities.

• This flow of gel and consequent displacement of water is responsible for complex
deformation behavior and is known as creep of concrete.

Factors affecting creep

1. Influence of aggregate

• Aggregates undergo very little creep.

• It is really the paste which is responsible for creep

• The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregates which do not creep.

• Stronger the aggregate, more is the restraining effect hence lesser is the magnitude of
creep.

• Higher the modulus of elasticity of aggregates, lesser is the creep.

• Light weight aggregate shows higher creep than normal weight because having low
modulus of elasticity.

2. Influence of mix proportion

• The amount of paste and its quality is one of the most important factor influencing creep.

• A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep.

• Therefore creep increases with increase in water / cement ratio.

• Creep is inversely proportion to strength of concrete.

3. Influence of age

• Quality of gel improves with time. Such gel will have less creep.

• The young gel under the load creeps more because of its elastic property

• The moisture content of concrete being different at diff ages also influences creep

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Effects of creep

• In RCC beams creep increases the deflection with time and may be critical consideration
for the design of RCC beam.

• In RCC columns when loaded eccentrically, the creep increases the deflection and it will
lead to buckling

• In mass concrete structure such as dams on account of differential temperature condition

at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be cause of cracking at the
interior portion of dams.

3.8 Shrinkage

It is the most objectionable defect in concrete due to the presence of cracks particularly in floors
and pavements. The term shrinkage is used to describe the various aspects of volume change in
concrete due to the loss of moisture at different stages due to different reasons.

Classification of shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage
Drying shrinkage
Autogeneous shrinkage
Carbonation shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage

The shrinkage of this type occurs when concrete is placed in formwork. When concrete is
still in plastic stage, the loss of water by evaporation from surface of concrete or by
absorption of water by aggregates are the reasons of plastic shrinkage. The loss of water
results in reduction of volume. Thereby aggregates or reinforcement comes in the way of
subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or internally around the aggregate
or reinforcement.
In case of floors and pavements where the surface area exposed to drying is large as
compared to depth, when this large surface is exposed to hot sun and drying wind, the
surface of concrete dries very fast which results in plastic shrinkage.

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Sometimes even if the concrete is not subjected to severe drying, but poorly made with a
high water/cement ratio. Large quantity of water bleeds and accumulates at the surface.
When this water at the surface dries out, the surface concrete collapse causing cracks.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibrations or yielding of formwork
support which again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not
developed enough strength.

Causes of plastic shrinkage

High water/cement ratio

Bad proportion concrete
Rapid drying
Greater bleeding
Unintended vibration

Preventionary measures

Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing rapid loss of water from surface.
This can be done by covering the surface with polythene sheets immediately after placing
concrete,
By monomolecular coatings by fog spray that keeps the surface moist or
By working at night
Revibrate the concrete in controlled manner
Use of small quantity of aluminium powder during mixing of concrete
Use of expensive cement or shrinkage reducing cement.

Drying shrinkage

Just like hydration of cement which is everlasting process, shrinkage is also the same.
The cement shrinks more than the mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete.
Concrete made with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than the concrete made with big size
aggregates.
The magnitude of drying shrinkage is a function of fineness of gel. Finer the gel more will be
shrinkage
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High pressure steam cured concrete with low specific surface of gel shrinks much less than
that of normally cured concrete.

Factors affecting shrinkage

1. Relative humidity: the relative humidity of atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is
kept. If concrete is placed at 100% relative humidity for a length of time, there will be no
shrinkage instead there will be a slight swelling.
2. Water/cement ratio: when w/c ratio adopted is less, a drier mix is formed and when this mix
is exposed to hot atmospheric condition shrinkage will be developed. If concrete mix is
prepared with high w/c ratio, because of higher water content, swelling takes place.
3. Aggregate: the grading of aggregate by itself may not directly make any significant influence.
But since it affects the quantum of paste and water/cement, it definitely influences the drying
shrinkage indirectly. The aggregate particles restrain the shrinkage of the paste. It can be
observed that harder aggregate with higher modulus of elasticity like quartz shrinks much less
than softer aggregate such as sandstone.
4. Moisture movement

Concrete shrinks when allowed to dry in air at lower humidity and swells when kept at 100%
relative humidity or when placed in water.

Just as drying shrinkage is a everlasting / continuous process. Concrete swells continuously when
placed in water. If a concrete sample subjected to drying condition, at some stage it is subjected
to wetting condition, it starts swelling. Initial drying shrinkage is not at all recovered even after
prolong storage in water which shows that the phenomenon of shrinkage is irreversible.

The property of swelling when placed in water and shrinks when placed in dry condition is
referred as moisture movement in concrete.

The moisture movement in concrete induces alternatively compressive stress and tensile stress
which may cause fatigue in concrete which reduces durability of concrete to reversal the stresses.

Autogeneous shrinkage:

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In a conservative system, where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted when
temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such conservative system is
referred as Autogeneous shrinkage.

Carbonation shrinkage:

Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide gets converted into calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete
only very slowly. Carbonation shrinkage is caused by dissolution of crystals of calcium
hydroxide and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product formed is less in
volume than the replaced product shrinkage takes place. Carbonation reduces the alkalinity of
concrete which gives a protective coating to the reinforcement against rusting. If depth of
carbonation reaches up to steel reinforcement it is liable to corrosion.

Durability

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3.9 Introduction

For long time it was assumed that concrete is one of the most durable material and requires less
maintenance but it is not true because, it will be subjected to severe or abrasive environment.

Reasons for loss of durability

Concrete structures which are constructed in largely polluted urban areas,

Effected by subsoil water in case of coastal regions &
No other material is available in nature which is more suitable or durable.

“Durability is ability of concrete to resist chemical attack, weathering, abrasion actions or

any other process of deterioration”.

Durable concrete is one which should maintain its original form and serviceability even though
when it is subjected or exposed to severe environment.

3.10 Significance of durability / strength durability relationship

While designing a concrete mix or designing a concrete structure, the exposure condition at
which concrete is supposed to withstand should be judge first. Since environment pollution is
increasing day by day and it is reported that, in industrially developed countries about 40% of the
total resources will be spent on repairs and maintenance. This indicates that, we are not giving
much importance for durability aspects.

Construction industries require faster development of strength in concrete so that they can
complete the projects within estimated time. This demand leads to the use of high early strength
cement and lower water-cement ratios. This intern results higher drying shrinkage, thermal
shrinkage, lower modulus of elasticity and lower creep coefficients.

High early strength cements are prone to cracking than moderate or low strength cements. If
durability is the main criteria, then a proper balance between high and low cement content should
be considered.

Structural cracks in high early cement can be controlled by introducing reinforcement but it does
not help the concrete durability. By providing more reinforcement, it will only results in

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conversion of bigger cracks to smaller cracks and these smaller cracks are sufficient to allow
oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture into the concrete which affects the long-term durability.

It is very difficult to conclude that, formation of micro cracks in high early strength cement is
responsible for the loss of long-term durability. These cracks promote permeability and concrete
structure undergoes deterioration, degradation, disruption and eventual failure.

Durability of concrete depends on external and internal factors

External factors

Physical factors: Loss of durability may be due to frost actions, variation in thermal
properties of cement paste and aggregates.
Chemical factors: Due to chemical action b/w seepage of water through cracks or voids of
concrete and cement paste.
Mechanical factors: Due to abrasion, erosion or impact
Environmental factors: Due to extreme temperature, attack of natural or industrial liquids &
gases.

Internal factors

Alkali Aggregate Reaction

Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregate and cement paste
Permeability of concrete

3.11 Factors affecting durability of concrete

Cement content

Mix should be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If cement is
reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability of concrete will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, w/c ratio increases
and resulting permeable material.

Compaction

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The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually it is
being governed by the compaction equipments used, types of formworks, and density of the
steelwork.

Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development and moisture retention and to ensure
hydration process occur completely.

Cover to the reinforcement:- Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in
codes.
Permeability:- It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed
that higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper curing,
sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low
permeability concrete.

3.12 Chemical actions

The durability of concrete is affected by

• Physical

• Chemical and

• Mechanical causes.

Durability of concrete is most affected by chemical causes which results in volume change,
cracking and leads to deterioration of concrete structures.

3.12.1 Sulphate attack

• They occur in soils or ground water.

• Soils contain some sulphates in the form of CaSO4, Na2SO4, KSO4 and MgSO4.

• CaSO4 is less soluble in water. Therefore ground water may contain other salts except
CaSO4.

• Solid sulphates do not attack the concrete severely, but when chemicals are in solution state,
they find the entry into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement products.

• Among all the sulphates, MgSO4 causes maximum damage to concrete.

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• A characteristic whitish appearance is the clear indication of sulphate attack.

• It denotes an increase in the volume of cement paste due to chemical action between the
products of hydration of cement and solutions containing sulphates.

• In the hardened concrete, Calcium aluminate hydrate ( C-A-H) reacts with Sulphate
salts from outside results in the formation of Calcium - sulpho- aluminate known as
Ettrignite
• The rate of sulphate attack increases with increase in the strength of solution.
• MgSO4 can cause serious damage to concrete with higher water-cement ratio in a short time.
• However if concrete is made with low w/c ratio it can withstand the action of magnesium
sulphate for 2 to 3 yrs.
• The concentration of sulphates is expressed as the number of parts by weight of SO 3 per
million parts (ppm).

Na2SO410 H2O + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO42H2O + 2NaOH + 8 H2O

(Gypsum)

Reaction of sodium sulphate solution with calcium aluminate hydrate.

2 [3CaO. Al2O3. 12H2O] + 3[Na2SO310 H2O]

3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4 + 8H2O + 2Al (OH)2 + 6NaOH + 17H2O

Methods of controlling sulphate attack

a) Use of Sulphate resisting cement :- by using low calcium aluminates (C3A) cements.

b) Quality of concrete :- well designed, dense and impermeable concrete

c) Use of air entrainment cement :- upto an extent of 6% it has beneficiary affect on sulphate
resisting cement.

d) Use of Puzzolana :- replaces a part of cement by Puzzolanic materials which reduces sulphate
attack, improves impermeability.

e) High pressure steam curing :- a part of cement is replaced by Puzzolanic materials which
reacts with Ca(OH)2 improves the resistance of concrete to sulphate attack.

f) High alumina cement :- resists sulphate attack by the formation of a thin film which checks
the diffusion of sulphate ions into the interior of concrete

3.12.2 Chloride attack

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• It primarily causes corrosion of reinforcement.

• About of 40% of failure of structures is due to the corrosion of reinforcement.

Due to high alkality of concrete, a protective oxide film is present on the surface of steel
reinforcement

This protective layer can be lost due to Carbonation

Reaction of CO2 with the hydrated cement paste or

Presence of chloride in the water.

Sulphates attack the concrete but chlorides attacks the steel reinforcement.

• Chlorides enter the concrete from cement, water, aggregates and sometimes from
admixtures.

• Chlorides enter the concrete by diffusion from environment.

• According to Bureau of IS, permissible chloride content in cement should be 0.1%.

• The amount of chloride required for initializing corrosion is partly depend on the pH value of
pore water in concrete.

• As the pH value is less than 11.5, corrosion may occur even without the presence of chloride
and greater than 11.5 requires chloride.

• Total amount of chloride present in concrete partly as insoluble chloride-aluminates and

partly as soluble chlorides.

• Soluble chlorides are responsible for corrosion of steel reinforcement.

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Corrosion control

Good quality of concrete → good construction practices

Proper mix design → use of right quality , quantity of cement for different exposure
condition

Less water-cement ratio → associated with lower permeability

Use of supplementary cementicious materials → such as flyash, GGBS, silica fumes

etc. required to be used along with lower w/c ratio in order to obtain dense concrete.

Silica fumes → improves the quality of concrete which reduces corrosion of steel
reinforcement

GGBS → reduces the water permeability upto 100% and reduces the diffusion of
chlorides ions into the concrete.

3.12.3 Freezing and thawing

• Concrete exposed to atmosphere are subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing and
suffer from the damaging action of frost.

• Frost action is one of the most important weathering action on the durability of
concrete.

Durability of concrete is affected by

Alternative wetting and drying

Alternative heating and cooling

Penetration and deposition of salts and other aggressive chemicals

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Leaching of Ca(OH)2

Action of certain acids

Alkali Aggregate Reaction

Mechanical wear and tear

Abrasion and cavitation

• Concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature.

• Fresh concrete contains a considerable quantity of free water. If the free water is subjected
to freezing temperature discrete ice lenses are formed.

• Water expands about 9% in volume during freezing.

• Formation of ice lenses causes permanent damage to concrete and it will not recover the
structural integrity.

• Hardened concrete should not be subjected to extremely low temperature. It is estimated that
free water present in the hardened concrete exerts a pressure of 14MPa.

• The resistance to freezing and thawing is measured by the durability factor

If D.F. < 40 → concrete is not satisfactory to resist freezing and thawing

If D.F. in between 40 to 60 → range for doubtful performance

If D.F. > 60 → concrete is probably satisfactory

If D.F. = 100 → concrete is satisfactory

3.12.4 Carbonation

• CO2 gas present in the atmosphere may vary from rural, urban and highly industrialized
area.

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• In case of rural areas the atmospheric CO2 is found out to be 0.03% by volume, 0.1%
or more in case of urban areas , and 0.3% in case of highly industrialized areas.

• In the presence of moisture CO2 forms carbonic acid, which reacts with Ca(OH)2 ,
forming calcium carbonate.

• The reaction between CO2 with hydrated cement is called Carbonation

• Carbonation causes contraction in the concrete resulting in a small shrinkage

known as Carbonation Shrinkage

• In actual practices , CO2 present in the atmosphere is smaller or greater

concentration diffuses or penetrates into the concrete and reacts with Ca(OH) 2
forming carbonates and reduces the PH value of hole water from (13-9) . When all
the Ca(OH)2 is carbonated the PH reduces to about 8.3

• In such low PH values , the protective layer gets dissolved or destroyed and the
steel exposed to corrosion.

Factors affecting the corrosion

Permeability of concrete

Moisture content

Grade of concrete

Relative humidity of ambient medium

Depth of cover

Concrete with higher w/c ratio and inadequate curing will have more carbonation effect ie,
depth of carbonation is more.

Measurement of Carbonation

• A freshly broken concrete surface is treated with a solution of phenolphthalein in dilute

alcohol.

• If there is no reaction of Ca(OH)2 with CO2 the color of concrete will turn pink

• If the color of the concrete changes → no carbonation

If the color of the concrete does not changes → carbonation

• The color pink will show even upto a PH value of 9.5

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Rate of Carbonation depends on

The level of pore water ie, relative humidity :-

• If pore is filled with water the diffusion of CO2 is very slow. But whatever CO2
is diffused into the concrete , is readily formed into dilute carbonic acid reduces
the alkalinity .

• If the pores are dry, at low relative humidity the CO2 remains in the gaseous form and
does not react with hydrated cement. The moisture penetration from external source is
necessary to carbonate the concrete.

• The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity of between 50 and 70%.

Grade of concrete
Permeability of concrete
Whether the concrete is protected or not
Depth of cover
Time of exposure

The rate of carbonation depth will be slower in case of stronger concrete because it is
much denser with lower w/c ratio.

3.13 Non Destructive Testing

3.13.1 Penetration Resistance Test

Penetration resistance tests on concrete offers a means of determining relative strengths of

concrete in the same structure or relative strength of different structures. Because of nature of
equipments, it cannot and should not be expected to yield absolute values of strength. ASTM C-
803 gives this standard test method titled “Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete”.

Windsor Probe is penetration resistance measurement equipment, which consists of a gun

powder actuated driver, hardened alloy of probe, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge and other
accessories. In this technique a gunpowder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe
into the concrete. During testing, it is the exposed length of probe which is measured by a
calibration depth gauge. But it is preferable to express the coefficient of variation in terms of
depth of penetration as the fundamental relation is between concrete strength and penetration
depth.

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The probe shown in fig.1 has a diameter of 6.3mm, length of 73mm and conical point at the tip.
The rear of the probe is threaded and screwed into a probe-driving head, which is 12.6mm in
diameter and fits snugly along with a rubber washer into the bore of the driver. As the probe
penetrates into the concrete, test results are actually not affected by local surface conditions such
as texture and moisture content. However damage in the form of cracking may be cause to
slender members. A minimum edge distance and member thickness of 150mm is required. It is
important to leave 50mm distance from the reinforcement present in the member since the
presence of reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of penetrating probe affects the
penetration depth.

A pin penetration test device (PNR Tester) which requires less energy than the Windsor Probe
system is given in fig.2

Being a low energy device, sensitivity is reduced at higher strengths. Hence it is not
recommended for testing concrete having strength above 28 N/sq.mm. in this a spring-loaded
device, having energy of about 1.3% of that of Windsor probe, us used to drive 3.56mm
diameter, a pointed hardened steel pin into the concrete. The penetration of pin creates a small
indentation (or hole) on the surface of concrete. The pin is removed from the hole, the hole is
cleaned with an air jet and the hole depth is measured with a suitable depth gauge. Each time a
new pin is required as the pin gets blunted after use.

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The strength properties of both mortar and stone aggregate influence the penetration depth of the
probe in a concrete, which is contrastingly different than cube crushing strength, wherein the
mortar strength predominantly governs the strength. Thus the type of stone aggregate has a
strong effect on the relation of concrete strength versus depth of penetration

3.13.2 Pull out test

This test method covers determination of the pull out strength of hardened concrete by measuring
the force required to pull a specially shaped steel rod or disc out of the fresh or hardened
concrete into which it has been cast. Because of its shape, the steel rod is pulled out with a cone
of concrete whose surface slope is approximately 45 degrees to the vertical. A hollow tension
ram bearing on the concrete surface exerts the necessary pull on the steel rod, with power
supplied by a hand-operated hydraulic pump. The force required for pullout is then related to the
compressive strength of the concrete.

The principal parts — ram and pump—are commercially available and peripheral parts such as
the rods, washers and sleeves can be manufactured locally, or all of the components may be
purchased as one proprietary system.

3.13.3 Rebound hammer test

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Procedure for rebound hammer test on concrete structure starts with calibration of the rebound
hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is tested against the test anvil made of steel having
Brinell hardness number of about 5000.

After the rebound hammer is tested for accuracy on the test anvil, the rebound hammer is held at
right angles to the surface of the concrete structure for taking the readings. The test thus can be
conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal
surfaces as shown in figure below:

If the rebound hammer is held at intermediate angle, the rebound number will be different for the
same concrete.

It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing.

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Principle
When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring
controlled mass with a constant energy is made to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The
extent of rebound, which is a measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale.
This measured value is designated as Rebound Number (rebound index). A concrete with low
strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy to yield in a lower rebound value
The following points should be observed during testing.
(a) The concrete surface should be smooth, clean and dry.

(b) Ant loose particles should be rubbed off from the concrete surface with a grinding wheel or
stone, before hammer testing.

(c) Rebound hammer test should not be conducted on rough surfaces as a result of incomplete
compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled concrete surface.

(d) The point of impact of rebound hammer on concrete surface should be at least 20mm away
from edge or shape discontinuity.

Six readings of rebound number is taken at each point of testing and an average of value of the
readings is taken as rebound index for the corresponding point of observation on concrete
surface.

Interpretation of Rebound Hammer Test Results:

After obtaining the correlation between compressive strength and rebound number, the strength
of structure can be assessed. In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases
and is also affected by a number of parameters i.e. type of cement, type of aggregate, surface
condition and moisture content of the concrete, curing and age of concrete, carbonation of
concrete surface etc. Moreover the rebound index is indicative of compressive strength of
concrete up to a limited depth from the surface. The internal cracks, flaws etc. or heterogeneity
across the cross section will not be indicated by rebound numbers.

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3.13.4 Core extraction tests

Core extraction and testing of concrete covers obtaining, preparing, and testing cores drilled
from concrete for compressive strength test of casted concrete structures.

Apparatus for Core Extraction of concrete:

Core drill, for obtaining cylindrical core specimens with diamond impregnated bits attached to
the core barrel.

Saw for trimming the ends of the core. The saw shall have a diamond or silicon carbide cutting
edge and shall be capable of cutting specimens that confirm to the prescribed dimensions without
excessive heating or shock

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Samples for core testing:

Samples of hardened concrete for use in the preparation of strength test specimens shall not be
taken until the concrete is strong enough to permit sample removal without disturbing the bond
between the mortar and the coarse aggregates.

Also samples that have been damaged during removal shall not be used unless the damaged
portions are removed and the resulting test specimen is having the required length.

Samples containing embedded reinforcement cannot be used for the test

Core drilling:
Core specimen shall be drilled perpendicular to the surface and not the formed joints or edges.

Record and report the approximate angle between the longitudinal axis of the core drilled and
horizontal plane of the concrete as placed.

A specimen drilled perpendicular to a vertical surface, or perpendicular to a surface with a

batter, shall be taken from near the middle of a unit of deposit when possible

3.13.5 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

Ultrasonic test on concrete is a recognized non-destructive test to assess the homogeneity and
integrity of concrete.

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1. Qualitative assessment of strength of concrete, its gradation in different locations of

structural members and plotting the same.

2. Any discontinuity in cross section like cracks, cover concrete delamination etc.

3. Depth of surface cracks

This test essentially consists of measuring travel time, T of ultrasonic pulse of 50 to 54 kHz,
produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, held in contact with one surface of the concrete
member under test and receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface at
the other end. With the path length L, (i.e. the distance between the two probes) and time of
travel T, the pulse velocity (V=L/T) is calculated (fig.2). Higher the elastic modulus, density and
integrity of the concrete, higher is the pulse velocity. The ultrasonic pulse velocity depends on
the density and elastic properties of the material being tested.

The pulse velocity in concrete may be influenced by:

a) Path length
b) Lateral dimension of the specimen tested
c) Presence of reinforcement steel
d) Moisture content of the concrete
In general, the velocity is increased with increased moisture content, the influence being more
marked for lower quality concrete.

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Procedure for Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

i) Preparing for use: Before switching on the „V‟ meter, the transducers should be connected to
the sockets marked “TRAN” and “REC”. The „V‟ meter may be operated with either:
a) The internal battery,
b) An external battery
c) The A.C line.
ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The pulse time for
the bar is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer faces before placing it on the
opposite ends of the bar. Adjust the „SET REF‟ control until the reference bar transit time is
obtained on the instrument read-out.
iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond range
be selected for path length upto 400mm.
iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be tested,
make careful measurement of the path length „L‟. Apply couplant to the surfaces of the
transducers and press it hard onto the surface of the material. Do not move the transducers while
a reading is being taken, as this can generate noise signals and errors in measurements. Continue
holding the transducers onto the surface of the material until a consistent reading appears on the
display, which is the time in microsecond for the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance „L‟. The
mean value of the display readings should be taken when the units digit hunts between two
values.
Pulse velocity = (Path length/Travel time)
v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from coming
into close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being taken. If this is
not done, the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the transmitter lead and this
would result in an incorrect display of the transit time.

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Questions

1. What is hardened concrete?

2. Define Abram‟s water cement ratio law.
3. What is gel space ratio?
4. What is maturity of concrete?
5. Explain the test for finding out the mechanical strength of concrete.
6. Define creep and what are the factors affecting creep of concrete?
7. Define shrinkage and what are the factors affecting shrinkage of concrete?
8. Define durability? Explain the significance of durability of concrete in its life time.
9. Define durability? Explain the significance of durability of concrete in its life time.
10. What are the factors affecting durability of concrete.
11. Write a note on effect of water-cement ratio on durability of concrete
12. On which factors durability of concrete depends?
13. Write a note on permeability of concrete
14. Explain the procedure for determining permeability of concrete.
15. What are the measures to be taken for controlling permeability of concrete
16. Why permeability of mortar and concrete is more than corresponding cement paste?
17. Write a brief note on following effects on concrete
i) Sulphate attack, ii) Chloride attack, iii) Freezing and Thawing effect and
iv) Carbonation.
18. Write a note on Non destructive testing of concrete.

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Outcome

Gives knowledge about the mechanical properties of concrete

Gives information about different Non-destructive tests of hardened concrete

Future study

By studying the tests one can adopt to know the strength of concrete

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