CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Module 4
Strength of Concrete-
 Strength of concrete is very important property of hardened concrete because quality of
concrete used in structure is depends upon its strength.
 It is defined as the ability to resist stress without failure.
 The compressive strength is one of the most important property of concrete.
 In some situation, other strength of concrete is play a role are flexural strength of concrete
and tensile strength of concrete.
 The strength of concrete is influenced by various factor that are type of cement, shape and
size of aggregate, concrete mix proportion, moisture content, type and rate of loading etc.

Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete:

Following are the important factors on which the strength of concrete depends upon:
1. Water cement ratio
2. Gel space ratio
3. Aggregate size
4. Properties of ingredients
5. Effect of age of concrete
1. Water cement ratio:
 Water cement ratio is defined as the ratio of weight of water added at the time of
mixing to the weight of cement in a mix.
 Water cement is generally expressed in volume of water required per 50 kg cement
bag.
 Concrete achieves its strength due to chemical reaction (hydration).
 For making concrete workable, water-cement ratios are required in the range of 0.35
to 0.40 or higher.
 Low water-cement ratios reduce porosity, limit the ability of free water to penetrate,
provide durability and high strength.
 The compressive strength of concrete primarily depends upon water-cement ratio.
Lower the water-cement ratio, higher is the compressive strength and vice-versa.
Abram’s law:
 In Abram’s law of water cement ratio states that, “the strength of concrete is only
dependent upon water cement ratio provided the mix is workable, the effect of air
voids is neglected”.
 Compressive strength of concrete(fc) can be found out using Abram’s Law,
𝑘
𝑓 =
(𝑘 ) /
Where,
k₁ and k₂ = empirical constants
w/c = water-cement ratio

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 Abram’s law is based on assumptions:
(i) Concrete is of ordinary grade (and not dry mixes)
(ii) Water-cement is more than 0.45.
(iii) Mix is workable and fully compacted.
 By proper compaction of concrete, these pores can be reduced and strength can be
improved. Fig. 4.1 shows the relation between strength and water-cement ratio of
concrete.
 The graph of compressive strength verses water-cement ratio is hyperbolic in shape
and it is difficult to interpolate results.

Fig. 4.1: Relation between strength and water-cement ratio of concrete

 However if graph of compressive strength verses cement-water ratio is plotted, the

approximately linear relationship is obtained. Compressive strengths can be obtained
by relation.

22.5
𝑆= − 13 …..MPa
(water − cement rati𝑜)
𝐶
= (22.5) × − 13
water

Fig. 4.2: Relation between compressive strength and w/c ratio

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2. Gel space ratio:
 Gel-space ratio is a better approach than that of Abram’s Law, as it takes into account
the following five factors mentioned which are also responsible for strength of
concrete:
(i) Degree of hydration of cement,
(ii) Chemical and physical properties of cement,
(iii) Temperature at which hydration takes place,
(iv) Air content in case of air entrained concrete, etc.
(v) Effective water-cement ratio, formation of fissures due to bleeding.
 Gel-space ratio is the ratio of the volume of hydrated cement paste to the sum of
volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary pores.
Volume of gel 𝑉
𝑥= =
space available 𝑉 + 𝑉
Where,
x = gel-space ratio
Vhc = volume of hydrated cement gel and
Vcp = volume of the capillary pores.
 Power experiment shows that relation between strength and gel-space ratio is given
as:
𝑓 = 𝑎 𝑥 = 240 𝑥
 Strength obtained by Abram’s law is based in water/cement ratio and is dependent on
age, whereas strength obtained by get space ratio is independent of age.
 Theoretical strength of concrete at 100% hydration can be as high as 120 MPa, as
against partially hydrated concrete.

Fig. 4.3: Relation between compressive strength of mortar and gel-space ratio

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3. Effect of Size of Aggregate on Strength:
 Large size of aggregate has lesser surface area, and requires less water to achieve
workability. Hence lower water-cement ratio can be used and higher strength can be
obtained. However, Large size of aggregate do not give very higher strength due to:
i. With large size of aggregate, internal bleeding takes place, resulting weaker
transition zone and micro cracks are developed.
ii. Large size aggregate result in non uniform distribution of load.
 In lean mixes, larger aggregates give highest strength, however, in case of rich mixes,
use of smaller size aggregate give higher strength than use of bigger size aggregate.
From graph shown in Fig. 4.4, it is seen that
i. Reduction in strength of concrete is pronounced with small size aggregate due to
reduction in water-cement ratio.
ii. In respect of lean mixes for large size aggregate, strength increases as cement content
increases.

(b)

(a)
Fig. 4.4: Influence of size of aggregate on compressive strength of concrete

4. Maturity of Concrete:
 Increase in strength of concrete is not only depends upon curing period of concrete,
but also on the temperature at which concrete is cured.
 Maturity of concrete is expressed as the function of summation of product of time and
temperature.
Maturit = (time × temperture)
 Hydration of concrete is continuing upto -11°C, therefore, -11°C is considered as a
datum for calculating maturity of concrete.
 Concrete cured at 18°C for 28 days, is considered to be fully matured, and its maturity
is calculated as,
= (28 days × 24 hrs) 18 − (−11) °
= 19,488°C
= 19,800℃ hours (say)

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 Fig. 4.5: Relation between logarithm of maturity and strength

 If 28 day strength of concrete is known, strength of concrete, at any other maturity

can be found out using Plowman equation.
Maturity
Compressive strength S = A + B log
100
Where A and B are Plowman’s constants, which depend upon strength at 28 days.

5. Aggregate Cement Ratio:

Fig. 4.6: Relationship of flexural strength with compressive strength and tensile
strength of concrete

 From economic consideration, aggregate cement ratio should as high as possible.

 For a given compaction factor/workability, compressive strength decreases, as
Aggregate Cement ratio increases (Higher the compaction factor, higher is the
workability).

6. Effect of age of concrete:

 Concrete developes strength due to hydration of four Bogue compounds (viz C3A,
C4AF, C2S and C3S) present in cement.
 Rate of hydration of these compounds is different. Especially compounds C2S and
C3S (which are responsible to contribute major strength) hydrate gradually and take
more than 28 days for complete hydration.

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  As per IS 456,2000, The amount of increase in strength of concrete beyond age of 28
days depends upon type of cement, grade of cement, curing. environmental condition
and temperature.
 Increase in strength, beyond 28 days age and upto one year is of the order of 10 to
20%. Indian practice does not consider this increase in strength while designing,
whereas British code permits to take this into account.
 Fineness of cement plays an important role, in early strength of concrete as under:

Particle size of Contributes of strength

cement in microns of concrete at the age of
5 to 7 microns 1 to 2 days
20 to 25 7 days
25 to 30 28 days
 Development of strength also depends upon water-cement ratio.
 Gain in strength is rapid with lower water-cement ratio than with higher water-cement
ratio as seen from graph below.

Fig. 4.7: Effect of age on strength of concrete

Relation between Tensile & Compressive Srength:

 Compressive strength of concrete is important strength of concrete is considered for
design of RCC structures.
 Tensile strength of concrete is generally neglected.
 The design of highway or runway slab is based on flexural strength of concrete and hence
it is necessary to determine the flexural strength of concrete from compressive strength or
independently.

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 Fig. 4.8: Relation between flexural strength with compressive strength & tensile
strength of concrete

 The strength of concrete in tension and compression are closely related, but there is no
direct proportionality.
 As the compressive strength of concrete increase, the tensile strength is also increases, but
at the decreasing rate.
 The relationship between compressive and tensile strength is affected by various factors:
i. crushed coarse aggregate
ii. fine aggregate
iii. grading of aggregate
iv. age of concrete
 The Fig. 4.8 shows a relationship of flexural strength with compressive strength and
tensile strength of concrete.
 Theoretically, the compressive strength of concrete is ten times of its tensile strength.
 A number of empirical formulae have been suggested to relate tensile strength and
compressive strength of concrete. Most of them are in the following form,
𝑓 =𝑘𝑓

Where,
ft = tensile strength of concrete
fc = compressive strength of concrete
k and n are coefficients which depends on the factors mentioned above and shape of the
specimen (cube or cylinder).
 ACI suggests a formula
𝑓 =𝑘 𝑓
 In the absence of test results, As per IS:456-2000, the flexural tensile strength is calculate
from the compressive strength by the following Equation.
𝑓 = 0.7 𝑓

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 Where,
fcr = flexural tensile strength in N/mm²
fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm².

Compressive Strength of Concrete-

 Concrete is a construction material which has always been meant to resist compressive
stresses most efficiently. Hence the strength of concrete means compressive strength.
 The compressive strength depends upon a number of factors, in addition to the main
factor which is water-cement ratio. These are:
1. Type of cement and its quality.
2. Texture of aggregates
3. Curing
4. Temperature at which the concrete is hardened.
5. Time of hardening.
 The compression test on concrete is conducted on cube specimen of sizes 150 mm x 150
mm × 150 mm as per I.S. code or on cylindrical specimen have length is equal to twice
the diameter in U.S. and other British countries.
 Strengths at 3 days, 7 days and 28 days are tested.
 Compressive strength of cement concrete increases as specimen size is decreased.

Fig. 4.9: Cube and cylindrical mould

Compression Test of Concrete on Cubes:

1. Select a suitable proportion of cement, sand and aggregates (For example 1:2:4 means 1
parts of cement 2 parts of sand and 4 parts of aggregates). Mix it in dry state and then add
too it a known quantity of water, till it gets homogenous.
2. The moulds are cleaned and oil is applied to the internal face.
3. Then the concrete is filled in these moulds in layers of 50 mm height and each layer is
compacted by tamping rod with fresh concrete, they are placed on vibrating table. These
vibrations expel the air and voids from the concrete.
4. The moulds are removed from the vibrating table and the top surface is leveled off.
Identification mark is made on the top surface of the cube. Also the date of casting is
indicated on the cubes.

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5. The moulds are stored under damp sunny bags for 24 hours. The further the cubes are
removed from the mould and submerged in fresh water.
6. At the end of 7 days (counted from time of mixing of water with cement and aggregates)
three cubes are taken out.
7. The excess water is allowed to drain off and then the cube is placed in a compression
testing machine.
8. Load is applied gradually till the failure occurs. Maximum load reading is noted down.

Grades of Compressive strength at 28 days

concrete the end of 7 days (N/mm²) (N/mm²)
M10 7.0 10.0
M15 10.0 15.0
M20 13.5 20.0
M25 17.0 25.0
M30 20.0 30.0
M35 23.5 35.0
M40 27.0 40.0

We know that the strength of concrete increases with age. Assuming the strength of concrete
to be 100% at the end of 28 days, the percentage strength at various ages are as follows:

Age Strength %
1 day 16
3 days 40
7 days 67
28 days 100
3 months 122
6 months 146
1 year 155

Tensile Strength of Concrete-

 Tensile strength in concrete is very low as compare to compressive strength and hence
steel is provided to resist tensile forces in reinforce concrete members.
 The tensile strength plays an important role in resisting formation of cracks due to
changes in moisture content and temperature.
 It is very difficult to measure tensile strength of concrete directly because there is no
apparatus which applied direct pull to the concrete.
 Tensile strength is determined either by flexural test or split test.

Flexure Strength of Concrete-

 In RCC structure beams, slabs, columns etc. are subjected to bending. Concrete is a major
materials for construction of these members. So it is a very important to know the
bending or flexural strength of concrete.

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 Wheel loads cause high tensile stress due to bending in Concrete highway, concrete road
must resist tensile (flexural) strength. Also volume changes in concrete induced tensile
stresses in concrete due to temperature warping.

Fig. 4.10: Flexural testing of concrete beam mould

 The flexural strength is measured on beam is measured by centre-point loading method or

by third point method.
 The modulus of rupture is depends on the manner of loading and dimension of beams.
 By experiment, it is observed that the two point loading will yield a lower value of
modulus of rupture than the centre point loading.
 Standard size of beam specimen is 150 mm × 150 mm × 700mm over a span of 600 mm,
if the largest nominal size of aggregate does not exceed 20 mm, then 10 x 10 x 50 cm of
specimen is used.
 Tamping rod of weight 2 kg, 40 cm long and 25 mm square ramming face is used for
beam casting.
 The bed of flexure testing machine should be provided with two steel rollers mounted at a
distance 60 mm centre to centre for 15 cm specimen and 40 cm centre to centre for 10 cm
specimen.
 The specimen is loaded at the rate of 4 kN/minute for 150 mm specimens and 1.8
kN/minute for 100 mm specimens.
 The maximum load at failure is noted.
If a = distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the centre line
of tensile side of specimen,
𝑝×𝑙
𝑓 =
𝑏×𝑑

when a > 200 mm for 150 mm specimen or a > 133 mm for 100 mm specimen.
or
3𝑝 × 𝑎
𝑓 =
𝑏×𝑑

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when 170 mm < a < 200 mm for 150 mm specimen or 110 mm < a < 133 mm for 100 mm
specimen.
Where,
fb = Flexural strength or modulus of rupture, MPa
b = Measured width of specimen (mm)
d = Measured depth of specimen at the point of failure (mm)
l = Span on which specimen was supported (mm)
p = Maximum load applied to the specimen (N)

Fig. 4.11
Procedure:
1. Cast the beam in the mould and keep it in water at a temperature 24° to 30°C for 48 hours
before testing.
2. After 48 hours, the beam is placed in the machine such that two point loads are applied at
distance L/3 from the supports. Test two more specimen beams and find the flexural
strength of each specimen.
As per IS 456:2000, relation between flexural strength and compressive strength is
𝑓 = 0.7 𝑓

Bond Strength-
 The resistance to separation of mortar and concrete from reinforcing steel (or other
materials) with which it is in contact.
 Forces that resist separation, such as adhesion, friction.
 It consider two angles:
1. The bond strength between paste and steel reinforcement
2. The bond strength between paste and aggregate.
1. The bond strength between paste and steel reinforcement:
- A perfect bond, existing between concrete and steel reinforcement is one of the
fundamental assumptions of reinforced concrete.
- Bond strength arises primarily from the friction and adhesion between concrete and
steel.
2. The bond strength between paste and aggregate:
- Concrete can be regarded as a chain in which aggregates are the links bonded together
by cement paste.
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 - The strength of concrete as a whole is depending upon the strength (bond strength) of
the hydrated hardened cement paste (hcp).
- Strength of hep is depending upon w/c ratio and the products of hydration in
particular the C-S-H gel.

Modulus of Elasticity-
 Concrete shows remarkable elastic properties and follows the Hooke’s law upto a high
value of compressive loading. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is defined as,
Compressive strength
𝐸 =
Strain
 The modulus of elasticity varies from 2 x 105 kg/cm² to 5 x 105 kg/cm² for different
grades of concrete.
 Concrete is not perfectly elastic material and the value of modulus of elastics is not
constant for all stress.
 Modulus of elasticity of concrete is obtained by following ways:

Static Modulus of Elasticity:

 It is determined by subjecting a concrete beam to bending and determining deflection.
 The deflection is equated to the formula involving BM, span, modulus of section of
section and modulus of elasticity E, of concrete. E, determined thus is called as static
modulus of Elasticity.
 IS: 456-2000 gives the following empirical formula for static modulus:
𝐸 = 5000 𝑓 MPa
where,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete in MPa.
 Though the unit weight of concrete influences the modulus the same is not reflected in the
equation given by IS 456.

Fig. 4.12
 As the stress-strain curve for concrete is not straight. Hence, modulus of Elasticity is
found out by drawing tangent to initial part of curve and is called as Initial Tangent
Modulus.
 Modulus of Elasticity determined using secant is called on secant modulus, However,
there is no standard method of determining secant modulus.

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 If modulus of elasticity is found out using chord drawn between two specified points on
stress-strain curve is called as chord modulus.
 Static modulus of elasticity does not represent elastic behavior of concrete, especially at
higher stresses due to effect of creep.

Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity:

 If resonant frequency n of a specimen of length L is determined, then Ed, the Dynamic
Modulus of Elasticity can be found out by Equation,
𝐸 = 𝑘 .𝑛 .𝐿 .𝜌

Where,
L = length of specimen
ρ = density of concrete
k = constant
 Dynamic modulus of elasticity is not affected by creep, hence is more than the modulus
of elasticity obtained by static method.

Poisson’s Ratio:
 Poisson’s ratio for a concrete is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain under
uniaxial loading within elastic range.
 Depending upon the properties of aggregate, Poisson’s ratio for normal concrete ranges
between 0.15 to 0.20.
 Ultra pulse velocity method can also used for finding Poisson’s ratio.
 The value of Poisson’s ratio is slightly increases to 0.2 to 0.25, if it is determined by
dynamic test.
 Poisson’s ratio for concrete increase with richer mix.

Creep-
 Creep of concrete can be defined as the permanent strain induced in concrete due to
sustained load over a long period of time.
 The stress strain curve of concrete is not a straight line but a curve and the strain will go
on increasing after a certain value without appreciable increase in stress.
 As long as, the stress in concrete does not exceed one-third of its characteristic
compressive strength, creep may be assumed to be proportional to the stress.
 Creep is desirable under some situations such as RCC columns and continuous beams as
it adjusts the stresses in highly stressed and less stressed parts of the members.
 Creep in concrete is undesirable particularly in prestressed concrete structures
 When concrete member is loaded the member defines to a certain amount as soon as the
load is applied. The deformation increases with time evaluation load of member is kept
constant.
 Creep is a function time and is very difficult to avoid, creep occurs both in compressive
and tensile loading and its magnitude is same in both cases.

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Factors Affecting Creep:
Following are the factors which affect creep in concrete:
1. Quality of aggregate:
Good quality aggregate retards the creep.
2. Mix proportion:
A poor mix proportion shows more creep and water cement ratio used in the mix
proportion is the main factor affecting creep. Creep increases with increase in water
cement ratio. Thus creep can be said to be inversely proportional to strength.
3. Age of Concrete:
With age of concrete, creep goes on increasing. In the beginning, rate of creep decreases
with age as concrete achieves complete strength. But after 3 to 5 years the ageing process
increases the creep due to sustained load.

Shrinkage-
 Shrinkage is the decrease in volume of concrete in the absence of load with time.
 In the plastic stage, concrete shrinks in volume due to absorption of water or loss of
water.
 Due to bleeding, the surface water evaporates rapidly causing shrinkage and this uneven
shrinkage causes shrinkage cracks.
 Shrinkage depends upon the efficiency of curing method as well as water cement ratio,
cements lean mixes and amount of water added.
 Shrinkage can be reduced by using low water cement ratio, presaturated aggregate, water
tight and non-absorbent,.

Types of Shrinkage:
Shrinkage can be classified in the following ways:
1. Plastic shrinkage.
2. Drying shrinkage.
3. Autogeneous shrinkage.
4. Carbonation shrinkage.

1. Plastic shrinkage:
 Plastic shrinkage occurs soon after the concrete is placed or when the concrete is in
plastic state. The reason of plastic shrinkage is loss of water from the surface of
concrete due to evaporation or by absorption by aggregates or subgrade. The loss of
water results in reduction of volume.
 In case of floor and pavements where the large surface area is exposed to drying as
compared to depth, the drying of concrete is very fast. In such cases, due to exposed
surface area to hot sun and drying wind result is plastic shrinkage.
 Sometimes if concrete surface is not subjected to drying but made with high water-
cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and rise to the surface. When this water
dries, the surface of concrete gets cracked. This type of effect may occur due to the
excess vibration or yielding of formwork.

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  The shrinkage can be reduced by controlling the loss of water from the surface of
concrete. This can be done by proper curing or by covering the surface of concrete by
polyethylene sheeting immediately after placing the concrete or by working at night.

2. Drying shrinkage:
 The hydration is the continuous process, the drying shrinkage is also a continuous
process when concrete is subjected to drying condition. Drying shrinkage of concrete
is similar to drying of timber. The loss of free water from concrete does not cause any
volume change. But the loss of water held in gel pores causes the volume change. The
shrinkage may be defined as, “volume change that takes place after the concrete has
set and hardened”. Windrawal of water from concrete stored in unsaturated air voids
causes shrinkage, a part of this shrinkage can be recovered on immersion of concrete
in water.

3. Autogeneous shrinkage:
 In a sealed concrete where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted
when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur, known as autogeneous
shrinkage. This occurs in the interior of large concrete mass. This type of shrinkage is
of least importance and hence not applicable in the practice.

4. Carbonation shrinkage:
 The CO2 present in atmosphere reacts with Ca(OH)2 present in cement in the presence
of moisture forming CaCO3. Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of
concrete only very slowly. Carbonation is accompanied by increase in weight and
shrinkage. Carbonation also results in increased strength and reduced permeability.
The magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is very small and hence it is not of much
significance.

Factors affecting Shrinkage:

1. Water cement ratio:
The shrinkage increases with the increase in water cement ratio.
2. Cement type and content:
Rapid hardening cement gains strength rapidly and hence shrink more than ordinary
Portland cement. The shrinkage increase with the increase in cement content.
3. Ambient humidity:
The shrinkage increases with the decrease in humidity.
4. Type of Aggregate and content:
Aggregate restrain the extent of shrinkage in concrete, hence concrete with larger
aggregate content produce less shrinkage.
5. Admixture:
Shrinkage increases with addition of calcium chloride and reduces with lime replacement.

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Durability of Concrete-
 Durability of concrete is defined as the ability to resist weathering action, chemical
attack, abrasion, or any process of deterioration.
 In other words, It is defined as the ability to perform satisfactorily in the exposure
condition to which it is subjected over an intended period of time with minimum of
maintenance.
 Different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure
environment and the properties desired.
 Deterioration of concrete either due to Mechanical, physical or chemical action on
concrete which affects durability
 The mechanical deterioration of concrete is due to
1. Impact
2. Abration
3. Erosion
4. Cavitation
 The physical deterioration of concrete is due to
1. Freezing and thawing action.
2. Permeability of water
3. High heat of hydration
 The chemical reactions which degrade the concrete are
1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction.
2. Sulphate Attack.
3. Chloride Ingress.
4. Delay Ettringite Formation.

Cement Content in Concrete-

 Maximum cement content been given in design to the increased risk of cracking Cement
content not including fly ash and ground due to drying shrinkage inthin sections, or to
early granulated blast furnace slag in excess of 450 kg/x$ thermal cracking and to the
increased risk of damage should not be used unless special consideration has due to alkali
silica reactions. The cement and supplementary cementitious material content per unit
volume of concrete may be calculated from the free water-cement ratio and the quantity
of water per unit volume of concrete.
 The cementitious material content so calculated shall be checked against the minimum
content for the requirements of durability and greater of the two values adopted

Exposure to Different Conditions-

General environment The general environment to which the concrete will be exposed during
its working life is classified into five levels of severity, that is, mild, moderate, severe, very
severe and extreme as described below:
Mild: Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions, except those
situated in coastal area.

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Moderate: Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet Concrete
exposed to condensation and rain Concrete continuously under water Concrete in contact or
buried under non-aggressive soil/ground water Concrete surfaces sheltered from saturated salt
air in coastal area.
Severe: Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting and drying or occasional
freezing whilst wet or severe condensation.
Very Severe: Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes or severe
freezing conditions whilst wetConcrete in contact with or buried under aggressive sub-
soil/ground water.
Extreme: Surface of members in tidal zone Members in direct contact with liquid/ solid
aggressive chemicals.

Relationship between Strength and Durability of Concrete-

 Concrete durability is defined as the concrete ability to resist weathering actions,
chemical attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. A
concrete with a higher strength does not necessary mean a concrete with a better
durability performance.
 Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. A durable
material helps the environment by conserving resources, reducing wastes and the
environmental impacts of repair and replacement. Concrete durability is defined as the
concrete ability to resist weathering actions, chemical attack and abrasion while
maintaining its desired engineering properties.
 Durability is not a luxury feature of expensive structures or infrastructure projects only.
Durable concrete structures have plenty of benefits to the environment, people and the
national economy. The extension of five to ten years in the service life of the structures
may mean billions of USD saving to the national economy and to the national resources.
 Many factors may affect the durability of concrete structures such as
- Structural design,
- Concrete quality (which may include mix design, quality and consistency of raw
materials, mixing and delivery),
- Workmanship (placing, compaction, finishing and curing),
- structure usage
- Environmental exposure.
 Strength of the concrete is a main structural requirement that determines the capacity of
the concrete to support the designed loads (weight, force, etc.) without breaking and
maintain the structure stability and integrity. Strength is the property generally specified
in concrete design and quality control.
 Strength and durability are two different concepts related to the quality of the concrete.
They have to be dealt as two different concepts. A concrete with a higher strength does
not necessary mean a concrete with a better durability performance. At the same time, a
concrete with a better durability performance is not necessary to be a high strength
concrete. Strength should be specified only as a requirement needed to allow the structure
withstanding against the loads applied and not as a durability performance indicator.

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 The high strength concrete may share some concepts of mix design with the durable
concrete such as the use of low/lower W/CM ratio or the use of some types of additives
that help achieving a higher strength such as silica fume. But, these concepts are just few
concepts that can be used for designing a durable concrete among many other concepts.
 A concrete of 35MPa or 40 MPa can be a more durable concrete than a concrete of 60
MPa or 70MPa from the point of the view of durability performance indicators such as
Water absorption, Water permeability, RCP and other durability testing parameters.
 Specifying a higher strength for achieving a more durable concrete is a wrong
engineering practice. Strength should not be used as a durability performance indicator. It
is not a good or recommended engineering practice to specify 50 MPa for a concrete that
requires a design strength of only 35MPa in order to use the extra 15 MPa for achieving a
concrete with a better durability performance. The extra cost required for achieving the
unnecessary extra 15 MPa can be utilized effectively in the concepts rated to durability
based-thinking such as:
- The use of cementitious additives such as silica fume, GGBFS, fly ash, or natural
pozzolans either in binary or ternary blends with cement.
- The use of one of hydrophobic or crystalline admixtures.
- Setting a limit on W/CM ratio.
- Specifying appropriate level of concrete workability that facilities easier construction
processes of concrete casting, compaction and finishing, and eliminates the wrong
practices by the workmanship such as adding extra water on-site.
- Facilitating of better construction processes related to concrete casting, compacting,
finishing and curing of the concrete.
- Specifying “performance-based durability specifications” that focus on the
performance indicators of concrete durability without the need of setting limits on
every single material that would be used as an ingredient in the mix.
 While a minimum cement content has been specified in some US, BS and EU based
standards, it is not necessary that the use of a higher cement content will provide a better
durability performance. The type of the binder has a more significant effect on the
durability performance indicators than its content. From durability point of view, a 400 kg
of binder containing 7% silica fume and 50% GGBFS can be significantly better than a
binder containing a 500 kg or more of plain Ordinary Portland Cement (Type I as per
ASTM C150). While a more cement content usually grantees a higher strength at the
same water content, a more cement content does not grantee a better durability
performance.
 The durability of the concrete is the responsibility of all parties in the project. It is the
responsibility of the consultant to use the durability-based concepts and not the strength-
based concepts in specifying the durability performance indicators to grantee a durable
concrete as a (Designed Product). The responsibility of the concrete supplier to utilize
proper mix design and production processes to grantee a durable concrete as a (Delivered
“On-site” Product). The responsibility of the contractor to apply the proper construction
processes related to casting, compaction, finishing and curing procedures to grantee a
durable concrete as a (Finished Product). The responsibility of the owner to provide a

18
 proper maintenance, preventive and corrective procedures to grantee a durable concrete as
(In-Service Product).
 In conclusion, concrete durability should be specified based on “Durability-Based
Thinking” and not based on “Strength-Based Thinking”. Strength and durability are
different concepts and should be dealt as different concepts. Sometimes, they may share
some few design parameters but they are still different concepts.

Permeability of concrete-
 Permeability is the ease with which liquids or gases can travel through concrete
 Permeability is the rate of flow of fluid (i.e. distance penetrated/time) through concrete
 The coefficient of permeability, K, of concrete for steady-state flow of water through a
sample of concrete is determined from Darcy’s expression:
𝑑𝑞 ∆ℎ
=𝐾 𝐴.
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Where,
dq/dt = rate of flow of water through the sample
A = cross-sectional area of the sample
∆h = drop in hydraulic head through the sample
L = thickness of the sample

Significance of Permeability:
 Permeability of concrete plays an important role in durability because it controls the rate
of entry of moisture that may contain aggressive chemicals and the movement of water
during heating or freezing. Higher the permeability lesser will be the durability.
 Permeability of concrete is of interest also in relation to the water-tightness of liquid-
retaining structures. Higher the permeability lesser will be the water-tightness.

Factors Affecting the Permeability of Concrete:

The factors governing the permeability of concrete are described below:
1. Cement contant 5. Age of concrete
2. Quality of aggregatess 6. Degree of compaction
3. Pore structure 7. Adequacy of curing
4. Water cement ratio

1. Cement contant:
 To make an impermeable concrete, it is necessary to provide adequate cement
content.
 Permeability of concrete also reduces with the fineness of cement. Finer cement
particles will hydrate much faster, thus creating the impermeable concrete faster.

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2. Quality of aggregatess:
 Good quality normal aggregates have very low permeability. Normal weight concrete
generally has permeability similar to that of the cement paste.
 Permeability of concrete increases when more porous aggregates are used in the
concrete. If the pores of aggregates are getting connected with the micro- cracks of
the cement paste, then the ingress of moisture, alkalies, etc will be very fast and
accordingly deterioration of the concrete structure will be fast, affecting the durability
of concrete.
 Larger size aggregates if used, increases the permeability considerably due to the
development of micro-cracks in the weak transition zone at early age. The aggregates
from different sources have different permeability as given in Table 4.1.

Sr. No. Type of Rock Permeability (cm/s)

1 Dense Trap 2.47 × 10-12
2 Quartz Diorite 8.24 x 10-12
3 Marble 2.39 × 10-10
4 Granite 5.35 x 10-9
5 Sandstone 1.23 x 10-8
Table 4.1: Permeability of different aggregates

3. Pore structure:
 It is clear that decreasing porosity of paste up to a typical value of 30% is highly
beneficial in decreasing the permeability. Causing any decrease in porosity below this
typical value is not accompanied by a substantial decrease in the permeability.
 As shown in Fig. 4.13, the paste permeability is very low at and below a paste
porosity of 30%. A small increase in porosity above around 30% causes a steep
increase in the permeability.

Fig. 4.13: Effect of capillary porosity on permeability

4. Water cement ratio:

 The mixing water is indirectly responsible for permeability of the hydrated cement
paste because its content determines first the total space and subsequently the unfilled

20
 space after the water is consumed by either cement hydration reactions or evaporation
to the environment.
 The loss of mixing water is one of the reasons for higher permeability. Hence, simply
adding water to concrete will create more air space after evaporation. Therefore, for
any concrete to be watertight, the water-cement ratio shall be as low as possible.
 Concrete produced with low water-cement ratio shows low coefficient of permeability
as compared to concrete produced with high water-cement ratio as shown in Fig. 4.14.

Fig. 4.14: Effect of water-cement ratio on cofficient of permeability

 The coefficient of permeability increases about 1000 times with the increase in w/c
ratio from 0.35 to 0.65.
 ACI 301-89 suggests water-cement ratio not more than 0.48 for concrete exposed to
fresh water and not more than 0.44 for concrete exposed to sea water.

5. Age of concrete:
 Concrete continues to hydrate over a long period of time as long as there is a presence
of un-hydrated lime. Hence, as the age of the concrete increases, the permeability will
reduce.
 The water present in the capillary pore will be utilized by the cement for hydration,
continuously producing the hydration products which will fill the empty spaces in the
matrix. The reduction in permeability with age is shown in Fig. 4.15.

Fig. 4.15: Reduction in permeability with age

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6. Degree of compaction:
 The permeability in hardened concrete occurs due to air trapped pockets from
incomplete compaction and voids due to loss of mixing water by evaporation.
Adequate compaction packs the aggregates reducing permeability.
 It is therefore very important to make that any concrete placed in the formworks gets
proper and adequate compaction.

7. Adequacy of curing:
 Curing will continue the hydration process which occupies the pore space making the
concrete more impermeable.
 Concrete with steam curing is more permeable than that provided moist curing.

High Strength Concrete-

 As per ACI, high-strength concrete is defines high-strength concrete as (ACI 363 1992)
“Concretes that have specified compressive strengths for design of 41 MPa or greater, and
excluding concrete made using exotic materials or techniques. The word 'exotic' refers to
materials such as polymer- impregnated concrete, epoxy concrete and concrete with
artificial normal and heavy weight aggregates”.
 High strength concrete is often used in structures because of the various engineering
properties that come with higher strength, such as increased static modulus of elasticity
(stiffness), decreased permeability to injurious materials, or high abrasion resistance. The
decreased permeability of high strength concrete improves durability and increases
service life of concrete structures.
 Exceptional benefits, both technical and economical, have been derived using high
strength concrete. Because of these benefits, high strength concrete is now regularly used
in many applications, including buildings, offshore structures, bridge elements, overlays
and pavements, etc.
 The ingredients of high strength concrete are same as those used in conventional concrete
with addition of one or two admixtures; may be chemical and mineral with varying
proportions.

Aspects to be considered for mix design of High Strength Concrete:

1. Cement: HSC can be prepared by any of the five type of cement specified by ASTM.
Type III cement is used to get high early strength.
2. The total cement content should be around 415 kg/m³, but not more than 650 kg/m³.
3. Water cement ratio: Use low water-cement ratio; 0.24 to 0.35 to obtain high strength.
4. Fine Aggregate: It should be free from dirt and have fineness modulus upto 3.0, Higher
the modulus helps to keep the water content low and in turn to improve high strength.
5. Coarse aggregate: it should be strong and durable. And also use well graded concrete.
Maximum size of coarse aggregate should be less.
6. Superplastisizer: High strength concrete mixtures will have a high cement content that
increases the heat of hydration and possibly higher shrinkage leading cracking. Hence
supplementary cementitious materials such as flyash, ground granulated blast furnace

22
 slag, silica fumes, metakaoline, natural pozzolanic materials, etc. should be used to
reduce the heat of hydration. The use of these materials not only improves the properties
of fresh concrete but also enhances the long term durability characteristics.

Application of High Strength Concrete:

 High strength concretes is commonly used in the column of tall concrete buildings, where
normal concrete would result in unacceptably large cross sections, with loss of valuable
floor space.
 It is used in bridges, which help to design smaller cross sections and resulting reduction in
dead loads permits longer spans. The higher elastic modulus and lower creep coefficient
result in reduced initial and long term deflections.
 In case of prestressed concrete bridges, initial and time dependent losses of prestress force
are less. Other recent applications of high strength concrete include offshore oil
structures, parking garages, bridge deck overlays, dam spillways, warehouses, and heavy
industrial slab.

High Performance Concrete-

Any concrete which satisfies certain criteria proposed to overcome limitations of
conventional concretes may be called High Performance Concrete. It may include concrete,
which provides either substantially improved resistance to environmental influences or
substantially increased structural capacity while maintaining adequate durability. It may also
include concrete, which significantly reduces construction time to permit rapid opening or
reopening of roads to traffic, without compromising long-term servicibility. Therefore it is
not possible to provide a unique definition of High Performance Concrete without
considering the performance requirements of the intended use of the concrete.
American Concrete Institute defines High Performance Concrete as “A concrete which meets
special performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely by
using only conventional materials and normal mixing, placing and curing practices”. The
requirements may involve enhancements of characteristics such as placement and compaction
without segregation, long-term mechanical properties, and early age strength or service life in
severe environments. Concretes possessing many of these characteristics often achieve High
Strength, but High Strength concrete may not necessarily be of High Performance .A
classification of High Performance Concrete related to strength is shown below:

Compressive strength
50 75 100 125 150
(MPa)
High Performance
I II III IV V
Class
Table 4.2: Classification of High Performance Concrete related to strength

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Sulphate Attack-
 The sulphates of sodium, magnesium and calcium are present in alkali soils and waters.
 These sulphates react chemically with the hydrated lime and hydrated calcium aluminate
in the cement paste to form calcium sulphate and calcium sulphoaluminate.
 These reactions result in the expansion and disruption of the concrete. The deposition of
sulphate crystals in the pores of the concrete tends to disintegrate the concrete.
 Alkali waters entering concrete may evaporate and deposit their salts. The growing
crystals resulting from alternate wetting and drying may eventually fill the pores and
develop pressures sufficient to disrupt the concrete.
 Resistance to disintegration is more in dense, impervious concrete having low water-
cement ratio and containing entrained air.
 The vulnerability of concrete to sulphate attack can be reduced by the use of low C3A
content cement.
 Use of pozzolans increases the resistance to sulphate attack. High pressure steam curing
improves the resistance of concrete to sulphate attack.
 Addition of calcium chloride reduces the resistance to sulphate attack, whatever may be
the type of cement used.
 The resistance of concrete to sulphate attack can be tested by storing the specimens in a
solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate or in a mixture of the two.

Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR)-

Alkali-aggregate reaction is a chemical reaction between certain types of aggregates and
hydroxyl ions (OH-) associated with alkalis (Sodium Oxide and Potassium Oxide) in the
cement. Usually, the alkalis come from the portland cement but they may also come from
other ingredients in the concrete or from the environment. Under some conditions, the
reaction may result in damaging expansion and cracking of the concrete. Concrete
deterioration caused by alkali-aggregate reaction is generally slow, but progressive. Cracking
due to alkali aggregate reaction generally becomes visible when concrete is 5 to 10 years old.
The cracks facilitate the entry of de-icing salt solutions that may cause corrosion of the
reinforcing steel, thereby accelerating deterioration and weakening a structure.

Factors affecting on AAR-

Factors affecting Alkali Aggregate Reaction are:
Concrete deterioration from alkali-aggregate reaction is due to the simultaneous effect of
several factors. They may be subdivided in to three groups:
1. Material Properties: Aggregate and Cement
2. External Influences: Humidity, Temperature and Compressive Stresses
3. Time.

24
1. Material Properties:
a) Aggregates:
Aggregates used for concrete may come from rock that is used under conditions that
are different from those obtaining in its natural state. The rock will have evolved
slowly from the time it was first formed, slowly undergoing chemical alteration and
weathering until it has reached equilibrium. When it is suddenly put into an
environment with an average pH of 12.6 (rising locally to 13.6) which occurs in the
pore water within concrete, the constituent minerals will once again start to evolve in
an attempt to find a new equilibrium. This new stage of alteration leads to the
appearance of a partial solution which tends to form what might become an expansive
gel. When it does so, it is known as reactivity. Reactivity is dependent partly on the
minerals and partly on the rocks formed by the combination of minerals. Thus we
must distinguish between.
Factors connected with the constituent minerals:
a) Type
b) Tectonic and weathering history
Factors Connected with the Rock:
 Structure, grain size, porosity, permeability, specific surface
 Composition

(i) Mineral-Dependent Factors:

The most commonly incriminated minerals in structures subject to alkali-
aggregate reaction are the siliceous polyphased minerals and a few silicates such
as:
 Amorphous minerals like opal and volcanic glass
 Cryptocrystalline minerals like chalcedony
 Crystalline minerals like quartz, feldspar, and phyllosilicates

(ii) Rock-Dependent Factors:

Although it is the minerals which react, they are contained in rock and their
reactivity is governed partly by the rock formation. Lists of rocks classified as
reactive, which are known to have produced reactions in various countries are a
useful guide. The proportion of reactive aggregate causing maximum swelling the
“pessimum content” - is highly variable. In many cases it ranges from 3% to 5%
but it can be greater, depending on rock type and how pessimum content is
measured.

b) Cement:
Very high alkali content in the pore water phase is usually due to presence of the
alkalis in the cement and other cementitious materials. Alkalis can also come from
certain aggregates (feldspars) or admixtures. However the presence of free Ca (OH)2
is prerequisite for expansion to occur. Limiting permissible alkali content in portland
cement is considered a sufficient control measure. However, today there is beginning

25
 to emerge general agreement that the swelling risk with reactive aggregates is
proportional to the total alkali content of the concrete. Control measures should
recognize this fact as in British practice. With reactive aggregates, the use of alkali-
rich Portland cements can cause problems after only a few years. Mixing Water and
Admixtures Alkalies can also come into concrete from mixing water and chemical
admixtures in concrete. In many of the projects, ground water or boring water and
runoff river water is used in concrete. The ground water may contain dissolve alkalies
from the surrounding soil/ rocks and river water may also contain industrial and
agricultural effluent which may be the source of alkalies.

2. External Influences:
a) Environmental Humidity:
The alkali-aggregate reaction is greatly promoted by a relative humidity of 80% or
more.

b) Temperature:
Like all chemical reactions, AAR is affected by temperature. In general the rate of
reaction and formation of gel will increase as the temperature rises. At the same time,
gel at high temperatures will be less viscous and more able to escape into cracks and
voids within the concrete. Temperature of concrete is governed by ambient conditions
once the heat of hydration has subsided.

c) Compressive Stresses:
The expansion and damage due to AAR are greatly influenced by the presence of
restraints and stresses applied to the concrete. In fact well distributed compressive
stresses can reduce the concrete expansion in the direction of compression and
prevent cracks to open, limiting in this way the water circulation. From this point of
view there is a difference between primary cracking directly due to irregular local
concrete expansion (typical map cracking pattern) and secondary, or structural,
cracking which is produced by any structural restraint opposing the expansion. From
some observations it appears that the expansion at the bottom section of dams, where
stresses are high, is likely to be less important than a higher elevations. As such
stresses, also called backpressures, are produced by the expansion itself, they may
likely be one of the causes which in some cases slow down the expansion and
eventually stop it.

3. Time:
Time cracks appear after variable lengths of time. Concrete swelling may be gradual or
may occur suddenly at a later time. Swelling may eventually stop when all the reactive
fractions of polyphase aggregate have been exhausted. The structures where this was
studied were never in any danger of immediate failure.

26
Chloride Attack-
 Chloride exists in concrete as both bound and free ions, but free chlorides directly affect
the concrete. Chlorides may present in the concrete from several different sources.
 For e.g., soluble chlorides may be introduced in fresh concrete by the use of aggregates
containing chlorides. Some cement may also contain small amount of chlorides.
 Chlorides may also enter the concrete from the environment. But the chloride ions in the
concrete should be limited to its critical value to control the corrosion of reinforcement.
 Following table 4.3 gives the quantitative risk of concrete based on chloride content.

Chloride content by Probability of

mass cement (%) Corrosion
< 0.4 Low
0.4 - 1.0 Medium
> 1.0 High
Table 4.3
 Also, IS : 456-2000 has prescribed the limit of total amount of chloride in concrete (mass
%) by mass of cement.
 However, for pre-stressed concrete the total amount of chloride ions in concrete should be
limited to 0.06%.

Corrosion of Steel (Chloride Induced)-

 Concrete normally provides a high degree of protection against corrosion to steel
reinforcement. This is because concrete inherently provides a highly alkaline environment
for the steel which protects the steel against corrosion.
 In addition, concrete of low water-cement ratio and well cured has a low permeability
which minimizes penetration of corrosion.
 If the concrete is of suitable quality, then corrosion of steel can be prevented, provided
the structure is properly designed for the intended environmental exposure.
 The first evidence of corrosion is brown staining of the concrete around the embedded
steel. This brown staining results from corrosion of steel without cracking of concrete.
 Sometimes, cracking of concrete occurs shortly because the corrosion products of steel
(an iron oxide or rust) has a volume twice as much as that of metallic iron from which it
is formed.
 The forces generated by this expansive process can far exceed the tensile strength of
concrete with resulting cracking.
 Steel corrosion not only cause distress but may also cause structural failure resulting from
the reduced cross-section and hence reduced tensile force capacity of the steel.
 Steel corrosion can take place by several mechanisms but indirect oxidation of steel in
concrete is believed to be the main cause of corrosion distress in concrete. This type of
corrosion is termed electrochemical corrosion

27
Mechanism of Electro-Chemical Corrosion:
 The metals have a tendency to oxidize to a metal ion in an aqueous solution of normal
ionic activity at standard temperature.
 The ionization of metal i.e. oxidation of metal at the anode is often referred to as the
primary stage of the corrosion reaction called anodic reaction and can be represented by
𝐹 →𝐹 + 2𝑒
 This reaction results in the anodic region of the metal to have an excess of electrons.
Therefore, to maintain equilibrium of electric charges an equivalent quantity of hydrogen
is plated out at adjacent surfaces of the metal.
 This thin film of hydrogen around the cathode exhibits further progress of corrosion
reaction, unless the hydrogen film is removed in some manner.
 The destruction of hydrogen film may take by oxygen depolarisation at the cathode or by
evolution of hydrogen as a gas. These processes called cathodic reactions are usually
represented by:
1
𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 + 2𝑒 → 2𝑂𝐻
2
𝑜𝑟
2𝐻 + 2𝑒 → 𝐻
 These cathodic reactions which are often called the secondary reactions control the rate of
corrosion of the structural steel.
 Therefore, any environmental condition which influences these reaction will influence the
rate of corrosion.
 Since cathodic depolarisation is dependent on the concentration of dissolved oxygen next
to the metal, it is influenced by the degree of aeration, temperature, salt concentration etc.
 The secondary reactions permit the primary reaction to proceed with the accumulation of
ferrous ion in the solution which in the presence of water and oxygen are oxidised and
precipitated as rust.

Fig. 4.16: Chemical reaction resulting into the formation of rust

28
 However, two stages of oxidation may exist depending upon the availability of oxygen.
 The products of first stages namely ferrous hydroxide is more soluble than the second
stage product i.e. hydrated ferric hydroxide.
 The first is formed directly at the metal surface and is converted to the latter at a little
distance away from the surface where it is in contact with more oxygen as shown in Fig.
4.18.
 The structure and composition of the rust varies considerably with the conditions
prevailing during its formation and the structure of rust plays an important role in the
subsequent corrosion process.
 For example, if the rust layer is hard, dry and fairly adherent to the metal surface, it may
retard corrosion by forming a protective coating.
 On the other hand, if the rust layer is spongy and readily detachable, it will absorb oxygen
and moisture from the surrounding media and consequently add to further corrosion.

The Following Methods are Adopted to Prevent the Reinforcement from Corrosion:
 Using adequate concrete cover. It is necessary to ensure that minimum required cover has
been provided to all elements everywhere.
 Corrosion inhabitators are used as additives in concrete.
 Surface sealants are used on the surface of concrete
 (Silane, epoxy or methyl mithacrylate). Reinforcements are coated with corrosion
resistant material.
 Cathodic protection (Powerful method to stop corrosion in salt contaminated bridge
decks).

The Reinforcement Coating includes the Following:

 Cement slurry coating (adopted on sites by using skilled labours).
 Polymer coating.
 Galvanised coating.
 Fusion bonded epoxy coating.

Factors Contributing to Cracks in Concrete-

 The first and often most important step of repairing damaged or deteriorated concrete is to
determine correctly the cause of the damage.
 If the cause of the original damage to concrete is not determined and eliminated, or if an
incorrect determination is made, whatever damaged the original concrete will likely also
damage the repaired concrete.
 Money and effort spent for such repairs is, thus, totally wasted. Additionally, larger and
even more costly replacement repairs will then be required.
 If the original damage is the result of a one-time event, such as a river barge hitting a
bridge pier, an earthquake, or structural overload, remediation of the cause of damage
need not be addressed. It is unlikely that such an event will occur again.

29
 If, however, the cause of damage is of a continuing or recurring nature, remediation must
be addressed, or the repair method and materials must in some manner be made resistant
to predictable future damage.
 A quick review of the common causes of damage reveals that the majority of them are of
a continuing or recurring nature.
 It is important to differentiate between causes of damage and symptoms of damage.
 In the above case of the river barge hitting the bridge pier, the cause of damage is the
impact to the concrete.
 The resultant cracking is a symptom of that impact. In the event of freezing and thawing
deterioration to modern concrete, the cause of the damage may well lie with the use of
low quality or dirty fine or coarse aggregate in the concrete mix.
 The resultant scaling and cracking are a symptom of low durability concrete. The
application of high-cost repairs to low quality concrete is usually economically
questionable.
 It is somewhat common to find that multiple causes of damage exist. Improper design,
low quality materials, or poor construction practices reduce the durability of concrete and
increase its susceptibility to deterioration from other causes.
 Similarly, sulphate and alkali-silica deterioration cause cracks in the exterior surfaces of
concrete that allow accelerated deterioration from cycles of freezing and thawing.
 The deterioration resulting from the lowered resistance to cyclic freezing and thawing
might mask the original cause of the damage.
 Finally, it is important to fully understand the original design intent and concepts of a
damaged structure before attempting repair.
 Low quality local aggregate may have intentionally been used in the concrete mix
because the costs associated with hauling higher quality aggregate, more distances may
have made it more economical to repair the structure when required at some future date.
 A classic example of misunderstanding the intent of design recently occurred on a project
in Nebraska.
 A concrete sluiceway that would experience great quantities of waterborne sand was
designed with an abrasion-resistant protective overlay of silica fume concrete. This
overlay was intentionally designed so that it would not bond to the base concrete, making
replacement easier when required by the anticipated abrasion-erosion damage.
 This design concept, however, was not communicated to construction personnel who
became deeply concerned when the silica fume overlay was found to be “disbanded”
shortly after placement and curing was completed.
 Some difficulty was experienced in preventing field personnel from requiring the
construction contractor to repair a perfectly serviceable overlay that was performing
exactly as intended.

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