Dr.

Shade Akinsete
 Research is an essential and powerful tool in
leading man towards progress. Without
systematic research there would have been
very little progress.
 Research is used in all fields of study such as
Science or Arts or Commerce.
 Research is used to find accurate and authentic
information about particular topics.
 Scientific research leads to progress in some field of
life.
 New products, new facts, new concepts and new ways
of doing things are being found due to ever-increasing
significant research in the physical, the biological, the
social and the psychological fields.
 Research today is no longer confined to the science
laboratory.
 RESEARCH IS MEANT TO:
 Bring to light new knowledge.
 Correct the present mistakes.
 Remove existing misconceptions.
 Add new learning to the existing knowledge.

NOTE:
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which
is hidden and which is yet to be discovered.
DEFINITIONS
 Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re+Search.
It means to search again. So research means a systematic
investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the
already existing facts.
 Research simply put is “Search of knowledge”
 Research is careful investigation for new facts in any
branch of knowledge
 It is a scientific and systematic search for relevant
information on a specific topic.
 Research is defined as a careful consideration of the
study regarding a particular topic, subject, concern or
problem using scientific methods.
 Research is an organized set of activities to study and develop a
model of procedure technique to find the result of a realistic
problem supported by literature and data such that its objectives
are maximised.
 Research is the systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict
and control the observed phenomenon (According to Earl Robert
Babbie).
 Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection
of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and
interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with
suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and
academic disciplines.
Earl Robert Babbie, is an American sociologist who holds the position of Campbell Professor
Emeritus in Behavioral Sciences at Chapman University
Term Definition
Data Measurement of records of facts made under specific
conditions
Hypothesis tentative assumption of the study or expected results of
the study
Independent variable The part of the experiment that the researcher is
manipulating, that is the experimental or treatment
variable
Dependent variable The effect of the Independent variable
Inductive Research Inductive research (IR) is a method of developing
theories based on specific observations or data.
IR uses specific observations and patterns to come up
with new theories.
Deductive Research Deductive research begins with a theory, hypothesis, or
generalization and then tests it through observations and
data collection.
a) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
b) Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
c) A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. This means following all
rules and procedures.
d) Research demands accurate observation and description.
e) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
f) Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
g) The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in
natural settings.
h) There has to be in-depth analysis of all data collected.
i) Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create
more opportunities for research.
j) Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data.
k) Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. Accuracy in all measurements
including in the instruments used.
1. Pure or Basic Research:
 Pure or basic research is also known as fundamental research.
 Basic research is an investigation of basic principles and reasons for the occurrence of a
particular event, process, or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic
research.
 The research carried out for new idea generation, new facts and fundamental principle for
human knowledge.
 The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something.
 It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original
or basic in character.
 Based on experimentation and observation by following rigorous standards and
methodologies to meet specific objective and ensure credibility of conclusions of research.
 Pure research generates knowledge and education.
 There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.
 The outcomes of basic research form the basis for applied research. The fundamental research
forms the basis for applied research as it provides new information and more opportunities
for further research.
Examples:
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
a) How did the universe begin?
b) What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
c) What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
2. Applied Research:
 Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve
practical problems.
 The main aim of applied research is to discover solution and to provide
knowledge.
 Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained
through theoretical research.
 Applied Research also aims to solve practical problems and address real-
world challenges.
 Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, e.g., cure
illness, and develop innovative technologies, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge's sake.

Examples:
a) Treat or cure a specific disease
b) Improve agricultural crop production
c) Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
 Basic and applied research can be further
divided into three main types:
Quantitative Research:
 Quantitative research is research that uses numbers as the main
data and the results of the analysis are described using
statistics.
 Quantitative research is centered around collecting numerical
data and employing statistical techniques to draw conclusions.
This type of research is often used to measure variables,
identify patterns, and establish causal relationships.
 The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena.
 Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which
can include:
 The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
 The development of instruments and methods for measurement
 Experimental control and manipulation of variables
 Collection of empirical data
 Modelling and analysis of data
 Evaluation of results
 General Characteristics of Quantitative Research:
 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics, and uses
numbers.
 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates the what, where, and when of decision-making.
Qualitative Research:
 Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or
impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and
symbols.
 Qualitative research focuses on understanding the intricacies of human
experiences, beliefs, and social phenomena. It provides rich, in-depth insights
and interpretations that numbers alone cannot capture.
 Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human
behaviour and the reasons that govern such behaviour. The qualitative method
investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.
 The information is in the form of qualitative data.
 Methods include: interviews, focus groups, observations, or open-ended survey
responses.
 Qualitative research is further classified into following types:
 Ethnography: This research mainly focus on culture of group of people
which includes: language, practices, structure, value, norms and material
things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people, Grapho: to write.
 Case Study Research: It is used to generate deep understanding of
complex issue in real life matter. It involve wide variety of principle in
medicine for examine patient.
 Phenomenology is a method in which researchers focus on studying
human experiences, including the way people conceptualize their lived,
shared experiences. Phenomenology concentrates on the perceptions and
communications of people regarding certain events.
 ETC (see next slide)
Mixed-Methods Research:
 Mixed-methods research (MMR) combines qualitative and quantitative
approaches to gain a deeper insight into complex problems. This integration
allows researchers to benefit from both numerical data and narrative
insights.
 Mixed methods research is a research methodology that combines both
qualitative and quantitative research approaches to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
 It goes beyond the limitations of using a single method and allows
researchers to leverage the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative
data in a complementary manner.
3. Descriptive Research:
 The research which determines "the way things are".
 Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or
phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where
questions of a research problem, rather than the why.
 Descriptive research portrays accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group.
 The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a
particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.
 Types of Descriptive Research:
a) Observation Method: Here the researcher observes.
There may be 3 types of approach for observational researches are covert (where the
researcher is "undercover"; the participants are unaware that they are being observed)
observation, overt (where those being observed are aware) observation and research
participation.
b) Survey Method: The brief interview or discussion with some person about relevant
topic. It is used to take opinion, thought and feelings.
c) Case Study Method: These studies are related to analysis of events, periods, persons,
decisions, policies, and institutions studied by one or more methods.
4. Analytical Research:
 Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills
and the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted
 It is related with conducting analysis on certain phenomenon with the help of analytical
tools.
 Analytical research used already available facts and information; analyze them to make
critical evaluation.
5. Conceptual Research:
 Conceptual research is defined as a methodology in which research is conducted on
the basis of already present information and observation on given a topic. That is by
observing and analyzing already present information on a given topic.
 Conceptual research does not involve conducting any practical experiments. It is
related to abstract concepts or ideas. Philosophers have long used conceptual research
to develop new theories or interpret existing theories in a different light.
6. Empirical Research:
 This type of research is based on collection of data which lead to generation of new
ideas, observation and experiments or by using scientific instruments. It is derived
7. Longitudinal Research:
 A longitudinal research is conducted when there is much observation of subject
variables for long time (over a weeks, months and years) and researchers do
not interfere with subjects. That means, the researchers conduct several
observations of the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting
many years. A longitudinal research is observational.
 Data is collected at the onset of study and gathered repeatedly over a period of
time (depends on length of study) to observe how variable change in during
the duration.
Types of Longitudinal Studies:
a) Retrospective Study: This study may involve to looking at historic
information for past records.
b) Cohort Analysis: In this type of study group being selected based on
historical, geographic, birth.
c) Panel Study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.
8. Laboratory Research:
 In laboratory research provide conditions with technological research,
measurement and experiments are to be performed.
 Any chemical substances, such as microscopically, parasitological,
hematological, immunological, biochemical, tissue culture research can be
carried out in the laboratory.
 It involves study of natural science with experiments.
9. Exploratory Research:
 Exploratory research is "the preliminary research to clarify the exact nature of
the problem to be solved." It is used to ensure additional research is taken into
consideration during an experiment.
 This research is conducted for not clearly defined problems.
 Exploratory research is a methodology approach that investigates research
questions that have not previously been studied in depth.
Definition
 A research aim is a broad statement indicating the
general purpose of a research project.
 A research aim is expressed as a broad statement of the
main goal of the study and does not need to be more
than one sentence.
 Research aims describe the purpose or main goal of a
project.
 Research aim emphasizes what needs to be achieved by
the end of the research process.
What to know about Research Aim
 Research aim helps the reader of a project or thesis
to understand the focus of the research and gives
them an idea of what the researcher is trying to
accomplish.
 Research aims are found in their own subsection
under the introduction section of all research
documents (e.g., dissertations or research papers).
 It should appear in your introduction at the end of
your problem statement, before your research
objectives.
Definition
 Research objective is a clear, concise, declarative
statement, which provides direction to investigate the
variables in a study.
 Research objective is a concrete statement
describing what the research is trying to achieve.
NOTE
 A research objective statement is divided
into two levels; namely general and specific
statement of research objectives.
General objectives
 General objectives have an inherent nature of being on
long term. That is they are objectives that are to be
achieved in the long-run, by the end of the whole process
of undertaking the research activities. This is the reason
why they are normally stated in a general form.
Specific objectives
 Specific objectives are in depth and detailed goals of the
research that have inherent nature of being achieved in
the course of undertaking the research in the short run.
These objectives describe what specifically will be
achieved during the study as the term suggests.
 Research objectives describe what you intend your
research project to accomplish.
 Research objectives should appear in the introduction of
the research project or paper, at the end of your problem
statement.
 Research objectives divide research aim into several
parts and address each part separately.
 Research objectives are more specific than the research
aim.
Title
HEAVY METAL AND POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON CONTAMINANTS
IN URBAN ROADSIDE SOIL ALONG HEAVY TRAFFIC DENSITY AREAS IN IBADAN,
OYO STATE
General objective
 The broad objective was to determined effect of traffic densities on Heavy metal and
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon accumulation in urban roadsides soil in Ibadan, Oyo
State.
Specific objective
 The specific objectives were to:
1. determine the physico-chemical parameters of the roadside soil samples along heavy
traffic densities area.
2. determine the concentration of heavy metals (Lead, Arsenic, Cadmium) in roadside
along heavy traffic densities area.
3. determine the concentration and possible sources of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAHs) along heavy traffic densities area.
Characteristics of specific objectives
 Since specific objectives are detailed and used to
achieve the general objective of a study, then these
should have the ‘SMART’ characteristics:

Meaning
S Specific
M Measurable
A Attainable
R Realistic
T Timely (Time bound)
 Specific – should be clear, focused and well-defined.
 Measureable – should clearly define the measurement
such that at least two people will measure it in the same
way
 Attainable – should be achievable in many spheres e.g.,
adequate and available resources to the researcher.
 Realistic – Should show that it is actually possible to do
or achieve.
 Timely - Research cannot be undertaken forever. There
is need to set timings when the set objectives will be
achieved by the researcher.
Difference between Research Aim and Research
Objective
 Research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research
objectives comprise a number of steps that address HOW research aim
will be achieved.
 The research objective is more specific than the research aim
 Aim focus on what a project proposes to achieve; objectives focus on how
the project will achieve its goal.
 As a rule of dumb, there would be one research aim and several
research objectives.
 The achievement of each research objective will lead to the achievement
of the research aim.
 Research aim defines what the study is going to answer, while the
research objective outlines how it is going to answer it.
 Research aim can be written in one sentence or short statement while
research objectives are written as a numbered list.
Term Definition
Variable  This is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or
counted.
 It is called a variable because the value may vary between data units in
a population, and may change in value over time.
 A variable may also be called a data item.
 Examples: Age, sex, income, class grades, eye colour and vehicle type.
Independent  The variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to
variable explore its effects.
 The variable that the researcher controls/manipulates.
 It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other
variables in the study.
Dependent  The variable that changes as a result of the independent variable
variable manipulation.
 It is the outcome you are interested in measuring, and it “depends” on
your independent variable.
 The variable that the researcher observes and measures.
 A hypothesis - a supposition or proposed explanation made on the
basis of limited evidence as a starting point (of a research) for
further investigation.
 A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the
sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.
 A hypothesis is an idea or explanation for something that is based
on known facts but has not yet been proved.
 A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some
evidence.
 A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will
find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not
yet been tested.
 A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or
prediction that will be tested by research.
 In other words, it is a statement based on facts (or some
reasonable assumptions) but that has not yet been
specifically tested.
 A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific
research. If you want to test a relationship between two or
more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you
start your experiment or data collection.
For example of Hypothesis:
 Sleep impacts academic performance.
 Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.
 Things to know about hypothesis:
 Hypothesis is the initial point of any investigation that
translates the research questions into predictions.
 It includes components like variables, population and the
relation between the variables.
 A hypothesis is not just a speculation, rather it should be
based on existing theories and knowledge.
 Also, a hypothesis has to be testable, which means you can
support or refute it through scientific research methods
(such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis
of data).
 For some research projects, you might have to write
several hypotheses that address different aspects of your
research question.
 A research hypothesis should be formulated
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
a) It should be clear and precise / accurate to consider it to
be reliable.
b) There should be scope for further investigation and
experiments. That is scope for conducting more tests.
c) The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very
simple. That is should be explained in simple language,
while retaining its significance
d) If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should
be stating the relationship between variables.
e) A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test
the relationship between two or more variables.
 Sources of Hypothesis
 Observations from past studies or present-
day experiences.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking
process of people.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
 Generally, there are two major types of scientific hypothesis:
1. Alternative Hypothesis
 This type of hypothesis is generally considered to be the opposite of a
null hypothesis is denoted as H1. This statement is used to identify the
expected outcome of your research. This type of hypothesis can be
further divided into two, namely:
i. Directional — A statement that explains the direction of the
expected outcomes. That is a hypothesis that states the result would
be either positive or negative is called directional hypothesis.
Sometimes this type of hypothesis is used to study the relationship
between variables rather than comparing between the groups.
ii. Non-directional — unlike the directional alternative hypothesis, a
non-directional one does not imply a specific direction of the
expected outcomes. It does not clarify whether the result would be
positive or negative.
2. Null Hypothesis
 This type of hypothesis is generally denoted by H0. This statement
is the complete opposite of what you expect or predict will happen
throughout the course of your study—meaning it is the opposite of
your alternative hypothesis.
 Simply, a null hypothesis claims that there is no exact or actual
correlation between the variables defined in the hypothesis. That
is a null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two
variables.
 It is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions
does not affect athletes' on-field performance”, meaning
physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field performances.
The researcher means even if there is, then it is only a
coincidence.
Example of Hypothesis Type of
Hypothesis
Eating fruits and vegetables will Directional
positively affect human physical health
Eating fruits and vegetables will affect Non-
human physical health directional
Eating fruits and vegetables will have no Null
effect on human physical health
Other types of Hypothesis include:
3. Simple Hypothesis

4. Complex Hypothesis

5. Associative and casual hypothesis

6. Empirical Hypothesis

7. Statistical Hypothesis
1. Define the Research Question
 Always start with asking the right research question.
 A perfect research question should be specific, clear and focused (meaning not
too broad).
2. Conduct a Basic Initial Research
 It is vital to collect some information before you can make the assumption.
 Find an answer to your research question based on what has already been
discovered by searching for facts, past studies, theories, etc..
3. Formulate a Hypothesis
 Based on the initial research, you should have a certain idea of what you may find
throughout the course of your research. Use this knowledge to shape a clear and
concise hypothesis.
4. Refine Your Hypothesis
 The last stage of creating a good hypothesis is refining what you have. This can be
done by ensuring the hypothesis is specific and testable.
Research Question Hypothesis Null Hypothesis
Increasing levels of
How does stress affect
stress among Increasing levels of stress
the academic
undergraduate among undergraduate
performance of
students will result in students will have no effect
undergraduate
decreasing academic on academic performance.
students?
performance.
Employees who have
a better work-life
How does improved balance will
There is no relationship
work-life balance demonstrate higher
between work-life balance
influence employees’ productivity
and productivity at the
productivity in the compared to those
workplace.
workplace? employees who do
not have a good
work-life balance.
Research Question Hypothesis Null Hypothesis

There is a negative
How does the frequent dependence between There is no correlation
use of social media the frequency of between the time spent on
impact users' attention social media usage social media and the
span under 16 years of and the attention span attention span of users under
age? of users under 16 16 years of age.
years of age.

Video games can

have a negative
How does playing video Playing video games does
impact on a person’s
games affect the brain? not affect a person’s brain.
brain, vision, and
memory.
 A literature review is a comprehensive
summary of previous research on a topic.
 A literature review is a survey of scholarly
sources on a specific topic. It provides an
overview of current knowledge, allowing you
to identify relevant theories, methods, and
gaps in the existing research.
WAYS TO CONDUCT A LITERATURE REVIEW
 A literature review surveys scholarly articles,
books, and other sources relevant to a particular
area of research.
 A review should enumerate, describe, summarize,
objectively evaluate and clarify this previous
research.
What is Literature Review (LR)?
 LR shows what has and has not been investigated.
 LR helps to develop general explanation for
observed variation.
 LR enable learning how others have defined and
measured key concepts.
 LR helps to develop alternative research project.
 LR helps to discover how a research project is
related to the work of others.
Five key steps to writing a literature review:
 Search for relevant literature
 Evaluate sources
 Identify themes, debates, and gaps
 Outline the structure
 Write your literature review
A good literature review does not just summarize
sources but it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically
evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of
knowledge on the subject.
 The literature review involves a careful selection and reading of
appropriate studies previously done on a topic.
 This section can be divided into sub-sections that address the
main components of the topic of the research.
 It may be useful to do a chronological format where you discuss
from the earliest to the latest research under each sub section.
 Alternately, you could write in a thematic way, outlining the
various themes that you discovered in the research regarding the
topic.
NOTE:
 Clearly reference any material you have used from other sources.
That is every thought or statement that is not originally yours must
be appropriately referenced.
 Clearly label and number any diagrams, charts, and graphs.
 Steps of Literature Review

Steps 1 2 3 4 5 6
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