MEE 411 - HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER (3 Units)

Modes of heat transfer

Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference. It is ‘something’ which appears at the
boundary when a system changes its state due to a difference in temperature between the system and its
surroundings. The driving potential or the force which causes the transfer of energy as heat is the
difference in temperature between systems. Other such transport processes are the transfer of
momentum, mass and electrical energy. In addition to the temperature difference, physical parameters like
geometry, material properties like conductivity, flow parameters like flow velocity also influence the rate of
heat transfer. The study of heat transfer is directed to (i) the estimation of rate of flow of energy as heat
through the boundary of a system both under steady and transient conditions, and (ii) the
determination of temperature field under steady and transient conditions, which also will provide the
information about the gradient and time rate of change of temperature at various locations and time.
i.e. T (x, y, z, ) and dT/dx, dT/dy, dT/dz, dT/detc. These two are interrelated, one being dependent on
the other. However explicit solutions may be generally required for one or the other.

Conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer modes.

Heat transfer by conduction
Conduction is the mode of energy transfer as heat due to temperature difference within a body
or between bodies in thermal contact without the involvement of mass flow and mixing. This is
the mode of heat transfer through solid barriers and is encountered extensively in heat transfer
equipment design as well as in heating and cooling of various materials as in the case of heat treatment.
The rate equation in this mode is based on Fourier’s law of heat conduction which states that the
heat flow by conduction in any direction is proportional to the temperature gradient and area
perpendicular to the flow direction and is in the direction of the negative gradient. The
proportionality constant obtained in the relation is known as thermal conductivity, k, of the material.
The mathematical formulation is given thus;

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Q – W, (Watt), A – m2, dT – °C or K (as this is only temperature interval, °C and K can be used without
any difficulty). x – m, k – W/mK. For simple shapes and one directional steady conditions with constant
value of thermal conductivity this law yields rate equations as below:

Assumptions of the Fourier’s law;

Example 1.1:
Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm thickness with a constant thermal conductivity of
8.5 W/mK when the surface temperatures are steady at 100°C and 30°C. The wall area is 3m2. Also find
the temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Soln:

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Electrical analogy (a) conduction circuit (b) Electrical circuit.
The denominator in equation 1.2, namely L/kA can be considered as thermal resistance for
conduction. An electrical analogy is useful as a concept in solving conduction problems and in general
heat transfer problems.
Thermal Conductivity: It is the constant of proportionality in Fourier’s equation and plays an
important role in heat transfer. The unit in SI system for conductivity is W/mK. It is a material property.
Its value is higher for good electrical conductors and single crystals like diamond. Next in order or alloys
of metals and non-metals. Liquids have conductivity less than these materials. Gases have the least value
for thermal conductivity. In solids heat is conducted in two modes. 1. The flow of thermally activated
electrons and 2. Lattice waves generated by thermally induced atomic activity. In conductors the
predominant mode is by electron flow. In alloys it is equal between the two modes. In insulators, the
lattice wave mode is the main one. In liquids conduction is by atomic or molecular diffusion. In gases
conduction is by diffusion of molecules from higher energy level to the lower level. Thermal
conductivity is formed to vary with temperature. In good conductors, thermal conductivity
decreases with temperature due to impedance to electron flow of higher electron densities. In
insulators, as temperature increases, thermal atomic activity also increases and hence thermal
conductivity increases with temperature. In the case of gases, thermal conductivity increases with
temperature due to increased random activity of atoms and molecules. It is given thus;

Thermal conductivity of materials depends essentially upon the following factors;

(i) Material structure
(ii) Moisture content
(iii)Density of the material
(iv) Pressure and temperature.

Heat Transfer by Convection

Convection: This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to
a flowing fluid at the surface over which the flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a very
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thin fluid layer at the surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The energy transfer is by combined
molecular diffusion and bulk flow. The heat flow is independent of the properties of the material of the
surface and depends only on the fluid
properties. However, the shape and nature of the surface will influence the flow and hence the heat
transfer. Convection is not a pure mode as conduction or radiation and hence involves several
parameters. If the flow is caused by external means like a fan or pump, then the mode is known as
forced convection. If the flow is due to the buoyant forces caused by temperature difference in the
fluid body, then the mode is known as free or natural convection. In most applications heat is
transferred from one fluid to another separated by a solid surface.
So heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the surface and then from the surface to the cold fluid by
convection. In the design process thus convection mode becomes the most important one in the point
of view of application. The rate equation is due to Newton who clubbed all the parameters into a single
one called convective heat transfer coefficient (h) as given in equation 1.3.

The quantity 1/hA is called convection resistance to heat flow. The equivalent circuit is given below;

Electrical analogy for convection heat transfer

Example 1.2:
Determine the heat transfer by convection over a surface of 0.5 m 2 area if the surface is at 160°C and
fluid is at 40°C. The value of convective heat transfer coefficient is 25W/m2K. Also estimate the
temperature gradient at the surface given k = 1 W/mK.
Soln:

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum in the limited wave length range of 0.1 to 10
m and is emitted at all surfaces, irrespective of the temperature. Such radiation incident on surfaces is
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absorbed and thus radiation heat transfer takes place between surfaces at different temperatures. No
medium is required for radiative transfer but the surfaces should be in visual contact for direct radiation
transfer. The rate equation is due to Stefan-Boltzmann law which states that heat radiated (i.e. the
emissive power) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface. Thus,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑇 and heat transfer rate between surfaces is given in equation 1.4.

This equation can also be rewritten as;

where the denominator is referred to as radiation resistance. Thus;

Electrical analogy-radiation heat transfer

Other laws of radiation are the Wien’s law and Kirchhoff’s law. The Wien’s law states that the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the hot body. Thus, 𝜆 ∝ ;
𝒄
𝝀= (1.6)
𝑻
Kirchhoff’s law states that the emissivity of the at a particular temperature is numerically equal to its
absorptivity for radiant energy from a body at the same temperature.
Example 1.3:
A surface is at 200°C and has an area of 2m2. It exchanges heat with another surface B at 30°C by
radiation. The value of factor due to the geometric location and emissivity is 0.46. Determine the heat
exchange. Also find the value of thermal resistance and equivalent convection coefficient.
Soln:

(This step is also useful for calculation and will be followed in all radiation problems taking 10–8 inside the
bracket).

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The determination of F is rather involved and values are available for simple configurations in the form
of charts and tables. For simple cases of black surface enclosed by the other surface F = 1 and for non-
black enclosed surfaces F = emissivity. (defined as ratio of heat radiated by a surface to that of an ideal
surface).

General Heat Conduction Equation

The general model for conduction study is a body in which (i) heat flows in all the coordinate directions,
(ii) heat is generated uniformly all over the volume and (iii) the temperature at any location in the body
changes with time.
In addition, the properties also vary with the coordinate directions. The energy equation for the model
is given below for a time period considered. The net heat flow through the body surface in all the
coordinate directions considered + heat generated in the volume = the energy stored.

The temperature in the body will be a function of location and time. In the popular Cartesian coordinates
T = T(x, y, z, ). The temperature field is obtained by deriving and solving the differential equation based
on energy balance relations for the volume. Considering the sub-volume with dimensions dx, dy and
dz in the cartesian coordinate system and taking a time interval d, and noting that temperature is a
function of all the four, the following steps lead to the general differential equation.

An elemental volume considered in cartesian coordinates

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 The heat flow by conduction through the boundary is obtained by considering the conduction
over all six faces. The area perpendicular to x direction has a value dydz. Using Fourier’s law, the heat
flow at the dydz face at x over time period;

The net flow in the x direction is obtained by taking the sum of these two which yields

Similar consideration in y and z directions give;

Heat generated in the volume during dis given by q dx dy dz dThe change in the energy of this
volume over the time dwhen temperature changes is 𝜌c dx dy dz 𝜕T. The sum is simplified by assuming
dx, dy and dz do not change along the coordinate directions and k is constant;

is defined as thermal diffusivity denoted by 


Where 𝜌 is density of the material, 𝑐 is specific heat capacity of the material. Note that the larger the
value of , the faster will the heat diffuse through the material and its temperature will change with
time. This will result either due to a high value of thermal conductivity (𝑘) or a low value of heat
capacity (𝜌𝑐). A low value of heat capacity means the less amount of heat entering the element, would
be absorbed and used to raise its temperature and more would be available for onward transmission.
Metals and gases have relatively high value of thermal diffusivity and their response to temperature
changes is quite rapid. The non-metallic solids and liquids respond slowly to temperature changes
because of their relatively small value of thermal diffusivity. 

integration of the equation has to consider the functionality of k with direction.

Similar steps may be followed to obtain the following differential equations in the cylindrical
and spherical coordinate systems. Here it has to be noted that the area value changes in the
coordinate directions.
In cylindrical coordinate (r, , z),

With k constant eqn. in 2.4 reduces to

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Elemental volume in cylindrical coordinates. Elemental volume in spherical coordinates.
In spherical coordinates (r, , ),

With k constant eqn. 2.5 reduces to

The complete solutions to the general model is rather complex. Some of the simplified models for
which solutions are attempted are listed below:
1. One dimensional steady flow (x or r directions) with constant or variable properties, without heat
generation.
2. Same as above but with heat generation,
3. Two dimensional steady flow (with constant properties, without heat generation), and
4. One dimensional unsteady state without heat generation.
The simplified expressions in these cases in the various coordinate systems are;
Cartesian coordinates:

Cylinderical coordinates:

Spherical coordinates:

Using the Laplacian, ∇ , the general heat conduction equation can be written as,
𝒒 𝝏𝑻
𝛁𝟐𝑻 + = … (i)
𝒌 𝜶𝝏𝝉
Other simplified forms of heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates:
(i) For the case when no internal source of heat generation is present, equation (2.3) reduces to;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝟐 + 𝟐 + = . [unsteady state ( ≠ 𝟎) heat flow with no internal heat generation], thus;
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝜶 𝝏𝝉 𝝏𝝉

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 𝝏𝑻
𝛁𝟐𝑻 = (Fourier’s equation).
𝜶𝝏𝝉
(ii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, then equation (2.3) reduces to;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒 𝝏𝑻
+ + + = 𝟎 [the conduction then takes place in the steady state ( = 𝟎)], thus;
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝝏𝝉
𝒒 𝒒
𝛁 𝑻 + = 𝟎 (Poisson’s equation). In the absence of heat generation, 𝛁 𝟐 𝑻 + = 𝟎 reduces to;
𝟐
𝒌 𝒌
𝛁 𝟐 𝑻 = 𝟎 (Laplace equation).
(iii)For steady state one-dimensional heat transfer;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒
+ =𝟎 … (ii)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒌
(iv) For steady state one-dimensional heat transfer without internal heat generation;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻
=𝟎 … (iii)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
(v) For steady state two-dimensional heat transfer without internal heat generation;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
+ =𝟎 … (iv)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
(vi) For unsteady state one-dimensional heat transfer with internal heat generation;
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
+ = . … (v)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒌 𝜶 𝝏𝝉
Steady state of conduction in one dimension, composite bodies lagging, economics of insulation.
1) Plane wall: Steady flow in the x direction (see figure below), assuming constant properties,
the problem can be solved by applying the basic law due to Fourier or by integrating the
simplified differential equation (2.11). From Fourier’s law;

Conduction-Plane wall
As k and A are constants, the equation can be integrated to obtain,

where L/kA is called thermal resistance. By integration,

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 , ,

For a wall made of several layers of different materials (as show in figure below), using the condition
that heat flow through one layer is equal to the heat flow through the other layers,

Any interface temperature can be obtained using,

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Composite wall-conduction

∆
𝑄= …(2.13)
where ∆𝑇 is the temperature drop in layer i and 𝑅 = 𝐿 ⁄𝑘 𝐴. In case convection is involved on either
side with 𝑇 , ℎ and 𝑇 , ℎ ,

Where 𝑅 = and 𝑅 = are convention resistances.

In certain cases, contact between two layers may not be perfect, introducing contact resistance. Some
typical values can be found in data books. This resistance is due to the surface roughness leading to
material contact at high spots only. A temperature drop will occur at the interface

Where Rs1 is the contact resistance between the first and second layers. The temperature variation in
such a case is shown in the figure of example below. The contact resistance will depend on the material,
surface roughness, the fluid between surfaces and the pressure applied. However, contact resistance
may not be considered at the first instance in many situations. A overall heat transfer coefficient is also
used for convenience where Q = UA∆𝑇 where

Examples.
1) A furnace wall is of three layers, first layer of insulation brick of 12cm thickness of conductivity
0.6W/mK. The face is exposed to gases at 870°C with a convection coefficient of 110W/m 2K. This
layer is backed by a 10cm layer of firebrick of conductivity 0.8W/mK. There is a contact
resistance between the layers of 2.6×10–4 m2 °C/W. The third layer is the plate backing of 10 mm
thickness of conductivity 49W/mK. The contact resistance between the second and third layers
is 1.5×10–4 m2 °C/W. The plate is exposed to air at 30°C with a convection coefficient of
15W/m2K. Determine the heat flow, the surface temperatures and the overall heat transfer
coefficient.
Soln:

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 Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
As A = 1

Surface temperatures:

2) Steady radial heat flow through hollow cylinder. As mentioned in the previous article, the
solution can be obtained either using Fouriers law or integrating directly. A quarter of circle is
shown due to symmetry. The integration of the heat equation 𝑘𝑟 = 0 (with constant k)
yields

Heat conduction-hollow cylinder

Integrating again

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 Subtracting and solving;

From A;

From (2.16b);

When a number of layers of different materials are involved with convection on both sides,

The interface temperature can be obtained using

Examples:
2) A pipe carrying steam at 230°C has an internal diameter of 12 cm and the pipe thickness is 7.5
mm. The conductivity of the pipe material is 49 W/mK the convective heat transfer coefficient
on the inside is 85 W/m2K. The pipe is insulated by two layers of insulation one of 5 cm thickness
of conductivity 0.15W/mK and over it another 5cm thickness of conductivity 0.48 W/mK. The
outside is exposed to air at 35°C with a convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K. Determine the heat

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 loss for 5m length. Also determine the interface temperatures and the overall heat transfer
coefficient based on inside and outside areas.
Soln:

Substituting

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside area:

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 3) Steady radial heat flow through hollow sphere. A quarter section is shown due to symmetry
integrating equation.

Radial heat conduction hollow sphere.

Substituting in A

Conduction through composite sphere can be solved by using the same method as in the previous two
articles
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Example:
3) A spherical vessel of ID 0.3m and thickness of 20mm is made of steel with conductivity of
40W/mK. The vessel is insulated with two layers of 60 mm thickness of conductivity 0.05 and
0.15W/mK. The inside surface is at –196°C. The outside is exposed to air at 30°C with convection
coefficient of 35W/m2K. There is a contact resistance of 1×10–3 m2°C/W between the two
insulations. Determine the heat gain and also the surface temperatures and the overall heat
transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area of the metallic vessel.
Soln:

The data and equivalent circuit

Here the inside surface temperature is specified. Hence there is no convective resistance on the inside.

Substituting

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area of the vessel

Interface temperatures:

Similarly,

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After contact drop

Economics of Insulation

This is concerned with determining the optimal thickness of insulation materials. The required
thickness of insulation for any specific application depends upon the characteristics of the insulating
material and the purpose of the equipment. When the sole objective is to achieve the minimum total
cost, the appropriate thickness is known as the economic thickness. If we need to calculate the economic
thickness, the following additional information will be necessary:
 Cost of heat to be used for calculation purposes, e.g., US dollars per useful mega joule
 Evaluation period (working hours)
 Whether or not the cost of finish is to be included in the calculation.
Any increase in the amount of insulation applied raises the cost of the insulation but decreases the cost
of heat lost. The sum of the two costs may be shown to lie on a curve with a rather flat region on either
side of a minimum value representing the economic thickness. Alternative systems should therefore be
derived and compared. It should be noted that methods used for calculating economic thicknesses refer
primarily to application over uniform types of surface, e.g., straight lengths of pipework. Thus they do
not take account of insulating valves and bends, nor do they necessarily include the cost of providing
for staggered joints or multiple layers. Also the method of algebraic solution requires the assumption
that the incremental cost of insulation can be related to the volume of insulating material, i.e., per cubic
meter or per liner meter for given diameters of pipe.
The methods of obtaining economic thickness include:
 Method of tabulation
 Method of algebraic solution
 Method of calculation
In the method of tabulation, the cost of insulation (including application and any normal finish)
and of the heat lost are tabulated for a range of thickness of insulation. These costs are added for each
thickness and the minimum total becomes apparent. For the purpose of calculating the cost of heat lost,
the surface coefficient can be taken to be 10.0 W/(m2K), since likely variations from this figure do not
significantly affect the result. The insulating effect of finishing materials
is ignored. The cost of heat lost is as follows:
 Cost of heat lost from flat surfaces;
𝐶 = 5400𝐻𝑞𝑌10 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡⁄𝑚
 Cost of heat lost from cylindrical surfaces;
𝐶 = 5400𝐻𝑞 𝑌10 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡⁄𝑚
𝑞 = 10 𝜋𝑑 𝑞
Where 𝑑 is outside diameter of pipe (𝑚), 𝐻 is evaluation period in hours (working), 𝑌 is cost of heat in
cent/useful MJ, 𝑞 is rate of heat loss through the insulating material per unit area of hot surface per
second in W/m2. This method is useful if the cost of increasing thickness of insulating material does not
follow a uniform pattern, e.g., if there is a transition from a single layer to a double layer system.
Method of algebraic solution involves incremental cost derivation. Then in the derivation of an
algebraic expression for economic thickness, a term arises that is a function of the insulation cost, and
for the equation given below, the term is represented by the symbol C, which is defined as the
incremental cost of insulation. It is important to realize that this is not the simple difference in applied
cost between one thickness and the next higher one, but is more strictly interpreted as the derivative
of the applied cost with respect to the volume of insulation. It should be noted that the additional cost
of the finish and accessories resulting from the increasing thickness of insulation is included. Within the
context of this method of economic thickness calculation, therefore, the value of C should be obtained
from a measurement or deduction of the slope of the curve for the plot of insulation cost against
insulation thickness. However, in practice, such a graph is unlikely to exhibit a curve (unless forced
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smoothing of the plotted points is carried out) and the alternative approach is commonly adopted in
these circumstances. By this method, any one value of C can be estimated from the costs of two
correspondingly successive thicknesses, with the understanding that the value applies to neither one,
but may relate to a thickness about midway between them. Sequential values obtained in this manner
can still be very erratic and should be subsequently smoothed where the situation calls for an orderly
progression of C values. The equations for deriving the incremental cost in accordance with the two
methods described in the previous paragraph are as follows;
From the slope of the cost curve:
i. For cylindrical surfaces:
×
𝐶=
ii. For flat surfaces:
𝐶 = 𝑠 × 10
From the cost of two successive thicknesses:
i. For cylindrical surfaces:
( )
𝐶= ( )( )
ii. For flat surfaces:
( )
𝐶= ( )
Where 𝑠 is slope of the curve of 𝑃 against 𝐿, 𝑑 is the outermost diameter of the insulation (in mm), 𝑃 is the
installed cost of insulation (in 𝑆⁄𝑚 or 𝑆⁄𝑚 ), 𝐿 is the insulation thickness (in mm), 𝑑 is the outside diameter
of pipe (in mm).
In method of calculation, if it is assumed that the cost per cubic meter of each increment through the
insulation thickness is constant, it is possible to give a simple algebraic expression relating the total cost
of the insulation, plus that of the heat loss in an arbitrary period of time, to the thickness of insulation.
This expression can then be used to find the thickness of insulation that gives the minimum total cost.
The economic thickness obtained in this way is given by the following equation:
( ) .
𝑥 = 5.76
Where 𝜆 is thermal conductivity of insulation material (in W/mK), 𝜃 is hot face temperature (in oC), 𝜃
is ambient air temperature (in oC), 𝑥 is economic thickness (in mm).
The equation makes only an approximate allowance for the temperature difference between the
atmosphere and the insulation surface, but this approximation has little effect on the calculated
economic thicknesses and the method is applicable to all normal insulation systems. Appreciable
inaccuracies occur when considering high cost insulation having a high thermal conductivity and in this
case the method given in previous section has to be used. In practice it may be found that the
incremental cost of the insulation is not constant. The expression for economic thickness is given just
above. When making a calculation it is first necessary to take an approximate value for C, which is used
to calculate a value for the economic thickness. If the value of C taken is found not to be appropriate to
the economic thickness obtained, a more appropriate value of C should be taken and the calculation
repeated.
Table 2.1: Economic Thickness: Typical Method by Tabulation

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Table 2.2: Incremental Cost of Insulation: Double Thickness

Examples:

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