6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 75

6 Elementary Particles
After discovery of the neutron in 1932, it was thought that the electron, proton and neutron were
the fundamental constituents of all matter. Subsequent experiments, involving cosmic rays and
accelerator beams, revealed that there was a host of other particles that could be regarded as
equally fundamental. These include, among others; leptons and hadrons (π-mesons, k mesons,
ρ mesons, hyperons), and their many excited states. All these are referred to collectively
as elementary particles. Usually, elementary particles are thought to be objects without any
substructures, i.e. point particles.

Structure can be proved only up to any given scale that is limited by available energy.
Consequently, the definition of elementary particles in terms of structure remains tentative, and
must rely on experimental verification at higher energies. Whenever a high-energy accelerator
starts operating, we can probe deeper into the structure of matter and find that what was once
considered elementary is not really so. Our current understanding of which particles should be
considered elementary is very different from that of several decades ago. However, we start with
the historical perspective, and turn to the more modern view of elementary particles.

6.1 Forces

We know that every particle, with or without rest mass, is subjected to gravitational attraction;
the observed bending of light in a gravitational field shows conclusively that particles do not
need to have rest mass, but rather energy to experience the pull of gravity. On the other hand,
only particles that carry electric charge sense the Coulomb field directly. Both Coulomb and
gravitational forces are long ranged. The photon is the carrier of Coulomb interaction, and from
the fact that the electromagnetic force has infinite range, we can conclude that the photon must
be massless. The carrier of the gravitational interaction is the conjectured graviton, also believed
to be massless.

There are two more forces that are of importance in the subatomic domain, i.e. the strong force,
which is responsible for the binding of nucleons inside the nucleus, and the weak force, which
appears in processes such as beta decay of the nucleus. These forces have no classical analogs and,
unlike the electromagnetic and gravitational forces, they are extremely short ranged. Therefore,
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 76

the four fundamental forces we can point to in nature are: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak
force and strong force. All these forces can, in principle, act at the same time. We can determine
which force contributes in a particular process because the forces can be distinguished through
the strengths of their interaction.

We can estimate the relative magnitude of the four forces by considering their effective potentials.
Consider two protons separated by a distance r. The magnitudes of the Coulomb and
gravitational potential energies for the two particles are;
e2
Vem (r) = , (140)
r
GN m2
Vgrav (r) = , (141)
r
where GN is the Newton’s constant [i.e. 6.7 × 10−39 ~c(GeV/c2 )−2 ], and m is the mass of the
proton. It is more instructive to write the potential energies in the Fourier transformed
momentum space, where they take the form
e2
Vem (q) = , (142)
q
GN m2
Vgrav (q) = , (143)
q
where q is the magnitude of the momentum trasfer that characterises the interaction.

The absolute values of the potential energies for both interactions appear to decrease quadrati-
cally with momentum transfer; the ratio Vem /Vgrav is independent of the momentum scale;
 2
Vem e2 e 1 ~c · c4
= =
Vgrav GN m2 ~c (mc2 )2 GN
 
1 1 1039 GeV2
≈ ≈ 1036 . (144)
137 (1 GeV)2 6.7

Since both strong and weak interactions are short ranged, they can be described by Yukawa
Potentials of the form
gs2 − mπ c2 r
Vstrong = e ~c , (145)
r
g 2 mw c2 r
Vweak = w e− ~c , (146)
r
where gs and gw are coupling constants, i.e. effective charges for strong and weak interactions,
and mπ and mw represent the masses of the force-mediating particles in the two cases. The
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 77

potentials can be transformed to momentum space as

gs2
Vstrong = , (147)
q 2 + m2π c2
g2
Vweak = 2 w 2 2. (148)
q + mw c
The values of the coupling constants can be estimated from experiments;
gs2 g2
≈ 15, w ≈ 0.004. (149)
~c ~c

We can think of π mesons (i.e. mπ ≈ 140 MeV/c2 ) as the moderator of the strong interaction.
Also, for weak interaction processes at low energies, we have mw ≈ 80 GeV/c2 . Consequently, we
can compare the magnitude of Coulomb potential energies for the strong and weak interactions.
Since we are considering interactions of two protons, it is natural to choose the momentum scale
to correspond to that of the proton mass. Thus, choosing q 2 c2 = m2 c4 = (1 GeV)2 ,
Vstrong gs ~c q2 gs ~c m2 c4
= = ≈ 15 × 137 × 1 ≈ 2 × 102 . (150)
Vem ~c e q + mπ c
2 2 2 2 ~c e m c + mπ c
2 2 4 2 4

Compare
Vem e2 ~c m2 c4 + m2w c4 1 1
= ≈ (802 ) ≈ 1.2 × 104 . (151)
Vweak ~c gw mc2 4 137 0.004
The results show that the strong force is stronger than the electromagnetic force, which in turn is
stronger than the weak force, and that gravitation is the weakest of all the forces. The difference
in the forces also manifests itself in the interaction time characterising a particular process. For
example, the typical time scales are:

ˆ Strong interaction −→ 10−24 s

ˆ Electromagnetic force −→ 10−20 − 10−16 s

ˆ Weak interaction −→ 10−13 − 10−6 s

Before it was fully appreciated that quarks were the fundamental constituents of nuclear matter,
all the known elementary particles were grouped into four classical categories that depended on
the nature of their interaction. These are shown in Table 1. All particles, including photons and
neutrinos, participate in gravitational interactions. The photon can interact electromagnetically
with any particle that carries electric charge. All charged leptons participate both in the weak
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 78

Table 1: Categories of elementary particles

Particle Symbol Range of Mass values

Photons γ 6 2 × 10−16 eV/c2
Leptons e− , µ− , τ − , νe , νµ , ντ 6 3 eV/c2 - 1.777 GeV/c2
Mesons π + , π − , π ◦ , K+ K− , K◦ , ρ+ , ρ− , ρ◦ , . . . 135 MeV/c2 - few GeV/c2
P P
Baryons p, n, Γ◦ , + , ◦ , △++ , △◦ , N∗◦ , Y∗+ , Ω− , . . . 938 MeV/c2 - few GeV/c2

and electromagnetic interactions, and neutral leptons have no direct electromagnetic coupling.
Leptons do not sense the strong force. All hadrons (mesons and baryons) respond to the strong
force, and participate in all the interactions.

All the particles in nature can be classified as either bosons or fermions, with the basic difference
between them being the statistics that they obey. Bosons obey Bose-Einstein statistics, whereas
fermions obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. This is reflected in the structure of their wave functions.
For example, the quantum mechanical wave function for a system of identical bosons is symmetric
under the exchange of any pair of particles, i.e.

ΨB (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = ΨB (x2 , x1 , . . . , xn ), (152)

where xi denote collectively space time coordinates, as well as internal quantum numbers of
particle i. On the other hand, under similar assumptions, the quantum mechanical wave function
for a system of identical fermions is antisymmetric under the exchange of any pair of particles,
i.e.
ΨF (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = −ΨF (x2 , x1 , . . . , xn ). (153)

Hence, Pauli exclusion principle forbids a pair of identical fermions to occupy the same quantum
state. This follows from the fact that, for x1 = x2 , the wave function would equal its negative
value, and would therefore vanish. It can be shown from fundamental principles that all bosons
have integer values of spin angular momentum, while fermions have half integral spin values.

It should be known that every particle has a corresponding antiparticle. The antiparticle has
the same mass as the particle, but opposite quantum numbers. Thus, the positron (e+ ) is the
antiparticle of electron (e− ), and carries a negative nepton number and a positive charge. The
antiproton (p̄) has one unit of negative charge and one unit of negative baryon number, in
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 79

contrast to the proton which is positively charged and has a positive baryon or nucleon number.
Antiparticles are usually denoted by the same symbols as the particles, except where they are
redundant or where there is a special symbol. Their symbols have a bar over the symbols of the
particles.

Certain particles cannot be distinguished from their antiparticles. For example, π◦ , which has
no electric charge, is its own antiparticle. It is clear that for a particle to be its own antiparticle,
it must be electrically neutral. However, not all electrically neutral particles are their own
antiparticles. For example, the neutron has no electric charge, yet the antineutron is distinct
because of its negative baryon number and opposite sign of the magnetic moment. Also, the K◦
meson has a distinct antiparticle.

6.2 Add: Characteristic Quantum Numbers

The state of an electron around the nucleus (its location and energy associated with it) is
described by a set of quantum numbers. Each electron in the atom is characterised by four
quantum numbers, giving the significance of the quantum numbers in terms of size, shape,
orbital orientation in space and spin around the nucleus.

6.2.1 Principal/Total Quantum Number (n)

This takes on values n = 1, 2, 3, · · · , ∞, and it is identical with that used in Bohr-Sommerfeld’s

theory. It specifies the major axis of the ellipse with which the energy of the electron is associated,
hence pertains to the main energy level or shell. These energy levels with n = 1, 2, 3, · · · , from
the nucleus are denoted by K, L, M, N, · · · Note that the energy (E) depends on n, i.e. E ∝
1/n2 .

6.2.2 Orbital Quantum Number (l)

This is an integer, and for a given n, it can take on values l = 0, 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1). Comparing
with the azimuthal quantum number (nφ ) of Sommerfeld, then l = nφ − 1. The orbital quantum
number specifies the minor axis of the ellipse. It also divides the main shell into n slightly
different energy levels of subshells so that the number of subshellsin a main shell is n. Thus, for
n = 1 (K-shell), there is only one subshell, s-subshell, with l = 0.
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 80

The orbital quatum number specifies the mechanical angular momentum of the electron, hence
also called angular momentum quantum number. The orbital angular momentum (pl ) is
associated with the orbits and is given by
p
pl = l(l + 1)~.

For, for n = 2 (L-shell), there are two subshells, i.e. l = 0, 1. These are s- and p-subshells.
Similarly, for n = 3 (M-shell), l = 0, 1, 2, corresponding to s-, p- and d-subshells, and so on. It
should be noted that s-subshell is the lowest in energy, followed by p-subshell, and so on.

6.2.3 Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number (ml )

This specifies the orientation of the electron in an external magnetic field, i.e. it specifies the
space orientation of the eletron’s plane elliptical orbit, but has no effect on energy levels.

If an external field is applied, the electrons (because of their magnetic moments) will experience
torques which will orient them so that the spin and angular momentum vectors will take up
definite positions in space with respect to the magnetic field, thus introducing fresh levels. The
extra subshells are denoted by ml .

For a given value of l, ml takes on values l, (l − 1), · · · , 1, 0, -1, · · · , -l. This means ml can
assume (2l + 1) values, or l can have (2l + 1) orientations. For example, for l = 1, the permitted
orientations of l are 3, for which ml = 1, 0, -1. Illustration for l = 3 is shown in Figure 9.

~
Figure 22: Projection of l in the direction of B.

~ is defined by lcosθ = ml . Hence, l vectors can only take seven

The angle θ between l and B
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 81

directions because the permitted orientations for l = 3 are 7, for which ml = 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2,
~ at any other angle. Thus, spatial quantisation.
-3. So, l cannot be inclined to B

6.2.4 Magnetic Spin Quantum Number (ms )

This specifies the orientation of the electron spin axis relative to the same frame of reference
as used for ml . The agular momentum can assume only two possible positions with respect to
the magnetic field, clockwise or anticlockwise, i.e. parallel or antiparallel to it, or oppositely
directed to it.

The projection of the angular momentum along the direction of the magnetic field is denoted by
ms , i.e. the magnetic spin quantum number. Note that ms = ± 21 . Thus, the difference in ms for
two electrons in any orbit is unity. According to wave mechanics, the spin angular momentum
of the electron is given by
p
ps = s(s + 1)~.

6.3 Add: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

This governs the electronic configuration of atoms having more than one electron. It states that
no two electrons in an isolated atom can exist in the same quantum state. This implies that no
two electrons in the same atom can have the same values of the four quantum numbers; n, l, ml
and ms . At least one quantum number must be different.

6.3.1 Application of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

1. Maximum Number of Electrons in Orbitals/Subshells. Consider an orbit with

principal quantum number n and orbital quantum number l. It is clear that the values of
n and l are fixed. Only the values of ml and ms change; ml = -l, · · · , 0, · · · , l and ms =
+ 12 , − 12 . Hence, there can only be 2(2l + 1) different combinations of (n, l, ml , ms ), which
is the maximum number of electrons in any subshell. For example, for s-orbital, l = 0, so
2(2l + 1) = 2 electrons; for p-orbital, l = 1, so 2(2l + 1) = 6 electrons, and so on.

2. Maximum Number of Electrons in Main Shells. Note that the main shell consists
of a number of subshells/orbitals. The maximum number of electrons in an orbit with
6 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 82

principal quantum number n is 2n2 . As a proof, consider an orbit with principal quantum
number n and orbital quantum number l. It has already been shown that the maximum
number of electrons in an orbital is equal to 2(2l + 1), where l = 0, 1, · · · , (n − 1). Thus,
the total number of electrons in n is given by
(n−1) (n−1)
X X
2(2l + 1) = 2 (2l + 1)
l=0
l=0 
(n−1) (n−1)
X X
= 2 2 l+ 1
l=0 l=0
 
2n(n − 1)
= +n
2
= 2n2 .

For example, for L-shell,

n = 2; l = 0, 1; ml = 0, +1, -1; ms = + 21 , − 21 . Hence, the possible combinations of the quantum
numbers are shown in Table 2. Thus, the maximum number of electrons in the K-shell is 8.
Note that the formula is only applicable to closed shells. The outermost shell cannot have more
than eight electrons.

Table 2: Possible combinations for n = 3

n 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
l 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
ml 0 0 -1 -1 1 1 0 0
1
ms 2
− 12 1
2
− 21 1
2
− 12 1
2
− 12