Unit 2

Atomic structure, periodic table and bonding

The structure of the atom. The table below shows the characteristics of the
subatomic particles.
Atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take
part in a chemical reaction. There are two regions of an Particle Mass Charge Location
atom. These are nucleus and the electronic regions. Proton 1 +1 Inside the nucleus
Neutron 1 0 Inside the nucleus
Nucleus. Electron 1/1840 -1 In energy levels
 This is the center of the atom.
 It contains protons and neutrons. In the neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the
 It has a positive charge because of the protons. number of electrons. This means that each proton (+ve)
 Almost the whole mass of the atom is in the nucleus has one electron (-ve) as a partner outside
concentrated in the nucleus. the nucleus.
 It is tiny compared to the size of the atom.
The atomic characteristics
Electronic region.
Atomic number (Z)
 This is generally the region of the electrons.
 The electrons move around the nucleus. This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
 They are negatively charged. They are tiny but of a given element. It is denoted by letter Z.
cover a lot of space. Mass number or atomic mass (A)
 They move in an orbit or energy levels (energy
quantum shells). This is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom of a given element. Atomic mass
Therefore, atom has three subatomic particles namely is denoted by letter A.
protons, neutrons and the electrons.
Therefore, A = Z + N where A = Atomic mass, Z =
The figure below shows atomic structure showing all the atomic number and N = number of neutrons.
subatomic particles.
The atom of any given element can be represented as 𝐀𝐙𝐗
Where X is a symbol for any atom for example sodium
atom.
Calculations involving atomic mass
1. If an element Y has Z = 19, A = 39, find the number
of neutrons in the atom of this element.
Solution
From A = Z + N, make N a subject of the formula. This
gives, N = A – Z
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N = 39 – 19 = 20. difference in number of neutrons creates a difference in
mass numbers of the atoms. Atoms with different atomic
Therefore, the number of neutrons is 20.
numbers must be for different elements.
2. A certain element X has a mass number of 14 and 8
The tables below show some isotopic elements.
neutrons. Calculate the atomic number.
i. Isotopes of hydrogen.
Solution
Hydrogen Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
A = 14, N = 8, Z = ? (99.99%) (0.01%) (trace)
Symbol 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
From A = Z + N, making Z and subject will be 𝟏𝐇 𝟏𝐇 𝟏𝐇
Protons 1 1 1
Z=A–N Neutrons 0 1 2
Electrons 1 1 1
Z = 14 – 8 = 6
Mass 1 2 3
The atomic number is 6. number

3. The atom of a certain element is represented as 𝟒𝟎

𝟏𝟐𝐗.
i. How many neutrons are in X? ii. Isotopes of carbon
ii. Calculate the number of electrons in the atom X. Carbon Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14
iii. Draw the atomic structure of X, showing all the Symbol 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝐂 𝟔𝐂 𝟔𝐂
subatomic particles. Protons 6 6 6
Solution Neutrons 6 7 8
Electrons 6 6 6
i) N = A – Z = 40 – 12 = 28 neutrons. Mass 12 13 14
ii) Electrons = protons in a neutral atom, so there number
are 12 electrons. iii. Isotopes of Chlorine
iii) The atomic structure needed is to show clearly
the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Chlorine Chlorine-35 Chlorine-37
(75%) (25%)
E = 12, P =12, N = 28. The diagram below 𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟕
Symbol 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥
shows such structure.
Protons 17 17
Neutrons 18 20
Electrons 17 17
Mass number 35 37

iv. Isotopes of oxygen

Oxygen Oxygen-16 Oxygen-17 Oxygen-18

Symbol 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟖
𝟖𝐎 𝟖𝐎 𝟖𝐎
Protons 8 8 8
Neutrons 8 9 10
Isotope Electrons 8 8 8
Mass 16 17 18
These are atoms of the same element with the same number
atomic number but different mass numbers. The

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 Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M).
Relative Atomic Mass is the average mass of one atom
1
of an element compared with the mass of one atom of
12
carbon-12. The RAM has no unit as it is just a ratio of
the two masses. In order to rate the atoms according to
their masses and to show their relative abundance, the
mass spectrometer can be used.
Calculations involving Relative Atomic Mass.
Characteristics of groups.
1. Silicon consists of three isotopes as follows;
i. There are 8 groups in the modern periodic table.
Silicon-28 = 92.2%
ii. Group is written in Roman numeral such as I, II
Silicon-29 = 4.7%
etc.
Silicon-30 = 3.1%
iii. Elements of the same group have the same
Determine its Relative Atomic Mass.
number of electrons in the outermost energy
Solution level.
28 ×92.2 29 ×4.7 30 ×3.1
iv. Elements of the same group have similar
RAM of Silicon = + + = 28.1 chemical properties because they have the same
100 100 100
number of electrons in the outermost energy
2. Chlorine has two isotopes; Cl-35 and Cl-37 in the level.
ratio of 3:1. Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass of v. Atomic size increases down the group as more
Chlorine. electron shells are added.
Solution vi. Elements in the same group have a common
valency.
35 ×3 37 ×1
RAM of Chlorine = + = 35.5 vii. In group, the valency can be the group number
4 4
or the electrons required to fill the outermost
Work to do energy level.

A sample of an element X consists of

9
of
16
X and
1
of Characteristics of the periods
10 10
18 i. There are 7 periods in the modern periodic table.
X. Show that the relative atomic mass if 16.2.
ii. Period is written in Arabic numeral such as 1, 2
etc.
The periodic table iii. Elements in the same period have the same
This is the arrangement of elements in order of their number of energy levels.
increasing atomic numbers, with elements of similar iv. The number of energy levels indicates the period
properties in the same vertical columns. The vertical to which an element belongs.
columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are v. Elements in the same period have different
called periods. The figure below shows the section of chemical properties because of different
the periodic table for the first twenty elements. electrons in their outermost energy levels.
vi. Atomic size decreases across the period from
left to right. This is because as one moves across
the period, one more electron is added onto the
same energy level. Extra proton is added into the

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 nucleus. This causes an increase in the nuclear gains one or more electrons, the ion formed is called
charge and the electrons are attracted towards cation. It has a positive charge. In a neutral atom,
the nucleus more than the previous atom. Hence number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
causing a partial decrease in size of the atom. These two charges cancel one another making atom
neutral (no charge). The atom loses one or more
Unique position of hydrogen in the periodic table.
electrons and the number of protons remains unchanged,
Hydrogen occupies a unique position in the periodic as a result, the ion formed is positive. In this case, there
table, appearing in group I and Group VII. This arises are more protons than the electrons as some of the
because hydrogen has only one electron in its energy electrons are lost. The atom having gained one or more
level. Therefore, it can be considered to be an element in electrons is negatively charged as it has more electrons
which electrons just begin to fill the energy level as with than the protons. This makes the effective charge
group I elements, therefore found in group I. In this case, negative.
it can lose that single electron and become cation of a
Elements lose or gain electrons in order to attain a noble
charge H+. On the other hand, it may be considered to be
gas electron arrangement. The noble gases are said to
an element which is one electron short of complete
have a stable electronic configuration making them
energy level just in the case of group VII elements. In
unreactive. The elements do this in order for them to
this case, it can gain one electron to fill its energy level
react. They do this by Octet duplet rule.
with 2 electrons. Hence, it is found in group VII.
Octet duplet rule.
Position of the elements in the periodic table.
Octet rule is the process of achieving a stable electronic
There are two types of elements in the periodic table.
configuration of 8 electrons in the outermost energy
The type of elements called metals and the other called
level just like in argon. Duplet rule is the process of
non-metals. The metals are found on the extreme left
achieving a stable electronic configuration of 2 electrons
side while non-metals are found on the extreme right
in the outermost energy level just like in Helium.
side. The metals have a lower affinity for the electrons
and they can easily release electrons when reacting. Formation of cations
They are therefore described as being electropositive
atoms. The non-metals have a higher affinity for the A cation is a positively charged ion formed when an
electrons and they can easily gain electrons when atom loses one or more electrons in its outermost energy
reacting. They are therefore described as being level. Metals at the extreme left side of the periodic table
electronegative atoms. The elements in the middle of the form cations. This means that they lose electrons in their
periodic table are also metals and are called transition outermost energy levels.
metals as they show the properties of both metals and Lithium ion formation.
non-metals. Note that when you have a group of metals,
based the reactivity, one can be electropositive and the Lithium has 1 electron in its outermost energy level.
other electronegative. This also applies to non-metals.

Ion formation
An ion is a charged atom formed when a neutral atom
gains or loses one or more electrons. The electrons
gained or lost are from the outermost energy level. When
an atom loses one or more electrons, the ion formed is
called anion. It has a charge of negative. When an atom

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All the metals lose their outermost energy level in gaseous state. The lower the ionization energy of an
electron(s) to form cation. Group I metals lose one atom, the more easily it will lose electron to form cation.
electron to form a cation of type M+. Metals in group II All the metals have lower ionization energies compared
lose two electrons to form cation of type M2+. The to non-metals, hence they more easily lose than gain
metals in group III lose three electrons to form cation of electrons. The ionization energy decreases down the
type M3+. Once the electrons are lost, the energy level group and increases across the period from left to right
from which the electrons are lost does not exist again as of the periodic table.
shown in the figure above.
Electron affinity
Formation of anions
This is the minimum amount of energy required to add
Anion is the negatively charged ion formed when an one or more electrons to the outermost quantum shell of
atom gains one or more electrons. The electrons gained an atom in gaseous state. This is so because as electron
are added into the outermost energy level. All the non- is entered into the energy level, it seems repelled by the
metals again electrons when forming ions. existing electrons. Therefore, energy is applied to add it.
The higher the electron affinity, the more easily an
Formation of fluoride ion.
electron can be gained or added to the atom. When an
electron is gained or added into the energy level of an
atom, the anion is formed. The electron affinity increases
across the period from left to right of the periodic table.
This is a reason why all non-metals gain electrons.
Electron affinity decreases down the group.
Atomic radius
Atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the
outermost energy level of an atom. The longer the
All the non-metals gain electrons and form anions. The distance, the less firmly the electrons are attracted to the
number of electrons gained depends on the group to nucleus and the more easily they can be removed. Down
which a non-metal belongs. The non-metals in group V the group, atomic radius increases. This makes
gain three electrons. Those in group VI gain two and ionization energy decrease hence the ease of losing
those in group VII gain one. The charge corresponds to electrons increases down the group in the periodic table
the number of electrons gained. for the metals. As atomic radius increases down the
group, the electron affinity decreases. This is because,
Factors affecting ion formation the nuclear attraction gets reduced, thereby making atom
There are four factors that affect the formation of ions by have less affinity for the incoming electrons. For non-
the atoms. These are metals in a particular group, the one higher in the group
easily gains electrons compared to the one lower. This is
 Ionization energy why, fluorine is more reactive than chlorine.
 Electron affinity
 The atomic radius The screening effect of the electrons
 Screening effect of the electrons.
The outer electrons are continuously screened by the
Ionization energy inner electrons. In other word, the electrons in the
outermost energy level can be protected from the nuclear
Ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy attraction. This exposes them to easier removal or this
required to remove one or more electrons from the atom can reduce the ability of the atom to add another
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incoming electron. This is why potassium is more Ionic bond is the type of bond formed when electrons are
reactive than sodium because, potassium has larger completely transferred from one atom to another. The
atomic size making the outermost electron more atom that donates electron is a metal atom and the non-
screened by the inner electrons hence it is easily lost. metal gains such electrons. They therefore form a
Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine for the same compound called ionic compound. Ionic compound is
reason. Chlorine has a larger atomic radius making the the compound formed when electrons are transferred
screening effect more hence, it is more difficult to add from one atom to another.
the incoming electron than in the fluorine atom.
The figure below shows the formation of sodium
Generally, atoms with larger atomic radii have a greater
chloride from sodium atom and chlorine atom.
screening effect compared to the atoms with smaller
atomic radii.
Examples of ion formation.
Na(g) → Na+(g) + e-
Cl2(g) + 2e-→ 2Cl(g) + 2e- → 2Cl- + 2e-
Mg(g) → Mg2+ + 2e-
S(g) + 2e- → S2-(g)

Bond formation
Bonding is the joining together of atoms or ions. Bond is Properties of ionic compounds
the force of attraction that joins the atoms or ions leading
to the formation of a compound. 1. They conduct electricity when in solution or molten
state. When in solid state, they do not conduct
Why atoms undergo bonding electricity as the ions are not free and mobile.
Noble gases have stable electron arrangement. For this 2. They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic
reason, they are said to have already formed bonds. solvent.
Hence, they are unreactive. Other atoms tend to form 3. They have high melting and boiling points.
bonds too. They form bonds by either gain or loss of 4. They are non-volatile solid
electrons. When they gain or lose electrons, they achieve 5. They are crystalline solid at room temperature.
the duplet or octet rule of the noble gases. They finally Covalent bonding
end up having formed bonds. The bonding involves the
outermost energy levels only. Covalent bond is the bond formed when atoms share one
or more pairs of electrons. These pairs are shared equally
There are some types of bonds and bonding. These are between atoms. When a covalent bond is to be formed,
 Ionic bonding the electrons are contributed by the atoms involved. The
 Covalent bonding following are the examples of compounds with covalent
 Metallic bonding bonds.
 Hydrogen bonding.
Ionic bonding

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 pair of electrons that has not been involved in the
bonding. Molecules with the lone pairs include ammonia
and water.
The following are the examples of dative bonding.

Work to do
Use (0) and (X) diagrams to show the bonding in the
following.
i) Nitrogen gas (N2)
ii) Oxygen gas (O2)
iii) Methane gas (CH4)
iv) Ammonia gas (NH3)
Work to do
v) Water (H2O). Use dot (0) and cross (X) diagram to show the bonding
vi) Carbon dioxide (CO2) when water reacts with hydrogen ion to form hydronium
ion (H3O+).
The compound formed by sharing of one or more pairs
of electrons is called covalent compound. Metallic bonding
Properties of covalent compounds This is a bonding that exists between the atoms of a
1. They are volatile liquids, gases or solids. given metal.
2. They are soluble in non-polar solvent but insoluble Formation of metallic bonding
in a polar solvent. But a few of them such as
hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water. Pure metals are made up of atoms of the same kind.
3. They do not conduct electricity. When the atoms of a given metal are closely packed,
4. They are molecules in nature. each atom loses its valence electron and the atom
5. They have low melting and boiling points. therefore becomes positively charged. The lost electrons
are free to move and are called delocalized electrons.
Dative (coordinate) bond These delocalized electrons form a sea of electrons or
This is a special type of covalent bonding in which the electron cloud. The metal therefore consists of
electrons shared come from only one atom. The atom positively charged ions surrounded by a cloud of valence
which donates the electrons which are later shared is electrons. This leads to the attraction between the
called a donor atom and the one to which electrons are electrons and the ion. This electrostatic attraction is
donated is called acceptor atom. The donor atom called the metallic bonding. The ions therefore arrange
usually has a lone pair of electrons. The lone pair is the themselves into a giant metallic structure.
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 Hydrogen bond exists in most molecular compounds
Properties of metals. such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride.
Hydrogen bonds are stronger than Van der Waal’s
1. They are good conductors of electricity and heat. Forces and so compounds with hydrogen bonds have
This is because of the free electrons their giant higher melting and boiling points than compounds of
metallic structure. equivalent molecular masses which do not have
2. They have a high melting and boiling point. The hydrogen bond.
metallic bond is very strong which needs a lot
energy in form of heat to break. Therefore, high
melting and boiling point.
3. They are hard with high density.

Hydrogen bonding
This is a force of attraction between two polar groups in
which one has a hydrogen atom. Here, the hydrogen
atom covalently bonds to highly electronegative atom
such as nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.
For example, in water molecule (H2O), oxygen has
higher attraction for electrons than hydrogen. Hence,
oxygen is electronegative atom. Hydrogen which has
lower attraction than oxygen is called electropositive
(less electronegative) atom. Electrons therefore spend
more time near oxygen atom than near hydrogen atom in
water. Because of electrons spending more time near
oxygen atom, oxygen acquires partially negative charge
and hydrogen acquires partially positive as shown
below.

HꝽ+- OꝽ-- HꝽ+

When one molecule of water combines with other water

molecules such as when they are in a container, they use
hydrogen bonding. This bonding occurs at the polar ends
of the water molecules as shown below.

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