Udaya Kumar. S, Faculty-Dept of ECE,AIET Moodbidri - 574225.

Module5
Introduction to Transducers
5.1 Introduction
Transducers are devices that are used to convert one formn of energy into another form. They convert
physical quantities (such as force, pressure, temperature, etc.) into quantities that are suitable for
measurement. Electricaltransducers are used to convert any form of energy into electrical energy.

5.2Classification of Transducers
) According to quantity monitored
Force,pressure, displacement, temperature, humidity, liquid level, light intensity, velocity, etc.
& T e

(ii) According to method of operations

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ECE

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(ii)
Resistive transducer
Inductive nsduo 560049
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(ii)
(iv) Thermal transducer
Yaculty.
Capacitive transducer

(v) Optical transducer galore

(ii) According to methods of energy
B
an output without any external electrical supply.
Active transducer: This produces an
Eg:Piezoelectric devices, thermocouples.
Passive transducers: This requires an external energy source to operate.
Eg: Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive transducers.

5.3 Parameters of Transducers

()Linearity: Agood transducer must have alinear input-output characteristics. i.e., the output must vary
directly as input. This is required to avoid the generation of harmonics frequencies which will produce
noise and distortion in the output.
Ci)Sensitivity: The transducer selected must produce a sufficiently large output even for avery small
input.
(ii) Accuracy: Agood transducer must produce a high degree of accuracy in its conversion process.
(iv) Range: The transducer must cover faithfully and accurately the entire range of operation of the
quantity to be converted by it.

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(V) Precision: Atransducer must be able to produce the same output for the same input for a large number
of times under identical operating conditions.
(vi) Reliability: Atransducer must be highly reliable.
(vii) Stability: Atransducer must be stable in its operation.
(vii) Dynamic Response: Atransducer must have a gooddynamic response i.e, it must able to operate
uniformly for a wide range of frequencies.
(ix) Ruggedness: Transducers must be rugged in their structure and operation. It must be able to
withstand overloads safely.
(x) Size: Atransducer must be as small as possible.
(xi) Cost: Atransducer selected for a given application must be as inexpensive as possible.
5.4 Resistive Transducers
A
resistive transducer isone whose resistance varies in accordance with the physical quantity to be
sensed or measured.

5.4.1 Potentiometer-type transducer

Apotentiometer may be used as a position / displacement transducer as shown in Fig 5.1(a). Ashaft is
connected to the moving contact/ wiper. The potentiometer has a supply voltage Eand so the position of
the wiper determines the output voltage v,. The shaft displacement can be measured electrically and
measurement can be displayedUdav
or Fig 5.1(b) shows the circuit diagram
of a position transducer llege

Eas.
Conducting
Strip

E Wiper
Resistive
Coil

(a)Construction (b)circuit diagram

Fig 5. 1: Potentioneter type transducer

Advantages
(i)Size can be as large or small as required.
(ii) Can be perfectly linear and thus giving alinear sensitivity (ratio of output voltage v, to displacement).
Disadvantages

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 potentiometer coils. Thus, resolution
purvoltage changes in steps as the wiper is moved between
depends on the number turns on the potentiometer.

5.4.2 Strain Gauges

strained. The resistance changes due to
Astrain gauge is a wire which changes its resistance when it is
the physical change of the wire when strained.
on the physical
These are classified as (i) bonded and (i) unbonded. The bonded type is bonded/glued
individual transducer.
quantity under investigation, whereas unbounded type is normally a part of an

(i) Bonded Strain Gauge

or a foil bonded on the
Fig 5.2 below shows a bonded strain gauge. The resistive strip is either a wire
gauge must
insulating base, which is then bonded to the surface of the item to be investigated. The strain
conductors are stretched
be placed longitudinally on the investigated item, so that longest part of the
when the item is stretched and compressed when the item is compressed.
Strain Direction

UdayaKue
Facue
Connecting Conductors

Insulating Base

Rssistive Strip
Fig 5.2: Bonded Strain Gauge
The resistance of the resistive wire is,
pl pl
R=

where p = resistivity of the wire (Q. m)

l=length of the wire (m)
A= cross sectional area of thewire (m²)
d= diameter of the wire (m).
Consider that the resistive wire is strained positively.
Let the new length = l+ Aland the new diameter = d - Ad.
Thus, the new resistance is,
p(l+ A)
R+ AR=
)d- sd)?
For strain gauge: The gauge factor GF =

3
 The Poisson's ratio = bdla
:. GF =1+ 2u

Example 1: Astrain gauge with a 40cm wire length and 25um wire diameter has a resistance of 250N and
a gauge factor of 2.5. Calculate the change in wire length and diameter, when the resistive change is 0.50.
Assume that the complete length of the wire is strained positively. Find the sensitivity of the transducer.
Solution: Given l= 40cm= 0.4m ; d=25um = 25 x10-6m; R= 2509; GF =2.5 ; AR =
0.50.
We have ARR
GFA,
AR/R
GF
o.5/250 =8x 10-4,
2.5

:: Al= 8 x 10-4 xl=8x 10-4x 0.4 = 0.32nm.

GF -1 2.5 -1
Poission's Ratiou = 2 2
= 0.75. , Tech

Ad
We have u x = 0.75 x 6 10-4.
d

Ad = dx6x 10-4 = A10-4

= 1.5 × 10- um.
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Change in the length
Change in the "um.
AR 0.5
Sensitivity S = A
mm.

Example 2: Astrain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is subjected to a 0.28mm strain. The wire dimen sions
are 50cm length and 30um diameter and the unstrained wire resistance is 552. Calculate the change in
wire resistance and diameter, if the entire length of the wire is strained positively.
Solution: Given GF = 2; Al= 0.28mm ; l= 50cm ; d = 30um ; R= 550.
We have GF A,
0.28x10-3
R = GFx=2x 50x10-2
= 1.12 x 10-3

AR = 1.12x 10-3 xR= 1.12 x 10-3 x 55 = 61.6 x 10-30.

We have GE=1+ 2u
: = - 0.5

4
 Ad 0.28x10-3
Also =NX= 0.5 x 0.5
= 2.8 x 10-4.

Ad= 2.8 x 10-4 xd= 2.8 x 10-4x 30 x 10-6 = 8.4× 10-m.

Change in the resistance AR =61.6 x 10-3n.
Change in the diameter Ad = 8.4 x 10-9m.

(ii) Unbonded Strain Gauge

Fig 5.3 below shows a type of unbonded strain gauge. It has 4 nickel alloy wires (typically 25um in
diameter) which are tightly stretched between insulating posts on a metal frame and movable armature.
An external force applied causes two of the wires to be positively strained (lengthened) and other two
wires to be negatively strained (shortened) The lengthened wires exhibit an increase in resistance and
the shortened wires exhibits decrease in resistance.
Tech
Force‘
directio Insulating Post
Metal

EF
aasc
Point
ti C
Bango
Fig 5.3: Unbonded Strain Gauge
If the wires are appropriately connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit, the resistance change can be
measured and the force that produced the change can be calculated.

5.5 Inductive Transducers

An inductive transducer is one whose inductance varies in accordance with the physical quantity to be
sensed or measured.

5.5.1 Variable reluctance transducer

The reluctance of an air gap in a magnetic path changes, when the length of the air gap changes. A
variable reluctance transducer is shown in Fig 5.4 below.

5
 Air

Core

Target

Displacemen
L

Air

ap

Fig 5.4: A Variable Inductance Transducer

Avariable inductance transducer consists of a U-shaped magnetic core with a coil and a soft iron target.
The length of the air gap determines the inductance of the coil. When the target displacement varies the
length of the air gaps, the reluctance of the magnetic path changes which in turn changes the inductance
L

The reluctance of the magnetic path is given by, Tech

Kumiat. R &

o l l e g e
oEf i

where l=total length of the air 8ap 560049

A= cross sectional area ofthe
Lo= permeability of ree space
le,plllerselproportional to the reluctance.
The inductance Lof the coil terminals is
N2 KoN'A K

Coi
where =number of turns on the
K=a constant.
It is seen that inductance Lis inversely proportional to the air gap length. Thus, the target displacement
can be measured by monitoring the coil inductance.
Example 3: The coil in a variable inductance transducer has a 1mH inductance when the total air gap
length is 1mm. Calculate the inductance change when the air gap is reduced by 0.2 mm.
Solution: Newair gap length l,=4-Al= 1mm 0.27mm = 0.87mm.
. Constant K= L, Xl, = 1mH x 1mm = 1x 10-6
1×10-6
New inductance L, =^ 0.8x10-3
= 1.25mH

Change in inductance AL = L, -L, =0.25mH.

Example 4: The coil in avariable reluctance transducer has a 0.5mH inductance when the total air gap
length is 1.3mm. The inductance increases to 0.55mH when the target is moved closer to the core.
Calculate the movement of the target.
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Solution: Answer: - New length of the air gap =1.18mm.
Movement of the target Al = 1.3mm- 1.18mm = 0.12mm.
5.5.2 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
This is a transformer which has a primary winding, two secondary windings and an adjustable iron core.
Fig 5.5(a) shows LVDT construction and its operation. Fig 5.5(b) is its circuit diagram.
The secondary voltages (v, and v, )are equal in magnitude when the movable coir is situated with equal
sections of core opposite to each secondary winding. Also v, is in phase with primary input ;and the
output v, is out of phase with v;. The secondary windings are connected in series, so v, and v, cancels
each other giving zero output voltage i. e., v, = 0.

Displacement

NË

D,, = 0
v, ( Udave
Ku

N2 ACollegc
(a) (b)
Fig 5.5: Variable Differential Transducer

When the LVDT core is displaced upward, the flux linking from the primary winding to secondary N,
increases and that to secondary N, decreases . This results v, to increase in its amplitude and v to
decrease. Thus, v,is in phase with v,.

When the LVDT core is displaced downward, the amplitude of v, increases and v, decreases. Thus, v, is
out of phase with v;, So, the amplitude and phase of the output voltage v, give a measure of the core
displacement and the direction of motion.
Fig 5.6 shows a graph of v, Vs d. The graph is almost linear but becomes non- linear for large
displacements.

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 ,tvo (output vtage)

V, is in phase with v,

d(displacement)
V, is in antiphase with y

Fig 5.6: Output voltage v, Vs Displacement d

5.6 Capacitive Trarnsducers

5.6.1 Capacitive displacement transducers
The capacitance between two plates is given by, & Tech
K i l h D S:

+.Depto f
e of
E
where e,= permittivity of free space 560049
¬, = relative permittivity of the dielectric
A= cross sectional area iCitl

2 permitlore
d= distance between thé 2plates
Variation of distance d, area A and e gives variations of capacitance C.
Fig 5.7 shows several parallel plate capacitors and illustrates how they can be adjusted when used in a
displacement transducer.

Capacitace varied by orea A

Copacitace varied ydistanced

Dieletre Fitd
Poted Placy

Capacitace varied by dielectric

Capacitnce varird by arra A

Elg57 ariaus capacitive displacement transducers

 Example 5:Aparallcl plate capacitive transducer has a plate arca (l x w) = (40mm x 40mm) and plate
spacing of (d) = 0.5 mm. Calculate the device capacitance and the displacement Ad that causes the
capacitance to change by SpF. Also,determine the transducer sensitivity.
Co¬A 8.84x10-12x40x10-3x40× 10-3
Solution We have, Capacitance c d 0.5x10-3 = 28.3 pF.

Consider that when distance changes by Ad, capacitance changes by AC.

: C- AC =
d + Ad

Eo¬,A 8.84 x 10-12 x 40 x 10- >x 40 × 10-3

:. d+ Ad = = 0.61mm.
C- AC 28.3 x 10-12 5 x 10-12

: Ad = (d+ Ad) - d= 0.61mm - 0.5mm = 0.11mm.

. displacement Ad = 0.11mm.
5x10-12
Sensitivity S = 0.11×10-3
45.4 pF/mm.

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5.6.2 Capacitive pressure transducers

Fig 5.8 shows the cross section of acapacitive pressure transducer which consists of a flat fixed plate and
a plasticdiaphragm with ametal film as a movable plate. The gap between the plate changes when the
diaphragm is pressured, consequently the transducer capacitance changes.
East B
Electrical
Contacts
Movable Plate
Transduce
(Diaphragm)
ec

Pressure
Wave SAmpliâer
Fixed Plate

Insulating
Material

Fig 5.8: A capacitive pressure transducer

Acircuit for extracting the microphone signal illustrated in Fig 5.8. The transducer capacitor is charged
to the level of thesupply voltagec, =E. In the absence of apressure variation on the diaphragm, there is
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normally no current flow and no resistor voltage drop er.The capacitor charge equation is Q = CE. As C
varies with the varying pressure, the charge on Cmust also vary and this produces a varying currenti
from the supply. The current has the same waveform as the pressure wave and it causes a varying voltage
drop eg across Rwhich can be amplified and further processed.

Prepared by,
Udaya Kumar. S
Faculty, Dept of E&C Engg
Alva's Institute of Engg & Tech
Moodbidri - D.K574225.

Teh
Dept
of ECE &
Engg
-
College560049.
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5.7 Thermal
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ealore
5.7.1 Temperature Coefficients
The resistance of all pure metals inereases with the temperature. So, metals have positive temperature
coefficients. But
semiconductors exhibit a decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. So, semiconductors have
negative temperature coefficients. The resistan ce temperature coefficient a of a metal defines how the
resistance changes with the temperature change and the a has to be specified for a given reference
temperature (usually 0°C or 20° C).Table shown below lists the temperature coefficients for platinu, copper
and nickel at 0°C and 20°C.

Table: Temperature coefficients of metals

Metal a at 0°C a at 20°C
Platinum 0.00391 0.00373
Copper 0.00426 0.00393
Nickel 0.0068 0.006

For a resistance of R, L, the change in resistance AR for a given temperature change AT is given by,
AR = R, xax AT
:. the new value of the resistance is,
R, = RË t AR = R,+ R,adT
10
 R, = R,(1 + aAT)

Example 6::Aresistance thermometer has a temperature coefficient of 0.0039 at 20°C and a resistance
of 1302. Calculate the temperature when its resistance measures 1752.
Solution: Given =0.0039 ;T = 20°C; R, = 130N ; R, = 1752.
Change in resistance AR = (175- 130)N = 450.
We have AR = R, XaxAT
AR 45
i change in temperature AT 88.7°C
RË X a 130 x 0.0039

Thus, the temperature when the resistance is 1750 is T, = 20+ 88.7 = 108.70°C.

5.7.2 Resistance Thermometer

The basic construction of a resistance thermometer (also known as Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD) ]is shown in Fig 5.9(a) below. The resistive temperature sensing element is in the form of coiled
wire positioned inside a protective sheath. The sheath may be glass or stainless steel suitable for the
environment where the RTD is to be employed. The resistive sensing element wire is wound on a mica
former. The material most often used for the resistive sensing element is platinum.
The insulated connecting leads which very low.resistance are provided. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig 5.9(b).
The RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in Fig 5.9(c). The meter (M) is
used to measure the bridge unbalance voltage which-can be calibrated to indicate tenperature. RTD can
Bangale
be employed over a very wide range of temperaturé from -20°c to over 650° C.
EastPoint
Connecting leads

Resistive Sen sing Conneting lead

Elerment
Resistanes

M
Protecting Sheath Rcs Re1

R
R
Mia former Resistane of
Sensng dlemert,
(a) Construction (b) Equivalent Circuit (c) Connection
Fig 5.9: Resistance Thermometer
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Disadvantages: (i) Need for power supply &bridge
(ii) More expensive.
5.7.3 Thermistors

Thermal resistor is usually called as thermistor. Thermistor with both negative temperature coefficient
&positive temperature coefficient are available. These are widely used for measurement and control of
temperature, liquid level etc.
It is manufactured by using various mixtures of metallic oxides which are pressed into the desired shapes
and sintering (baking) at high temperature. Electrical wire contact leads are included during the shaping
process or else metallic film contacts are deposited after sintering. The construction is illustrated in Fig
5.10(a) . Thermistors are produced in the shapes of beads, probes, discs, washers, etc as shown in Fig
5.10(b).

nar.
S

ECE
Engg
Dept
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500049.
Faculty.College
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(a) Construction
Point Buno (b) Various thermistor shapes
Thermistors
s!

The typical thermistor resistance Vs temperature characteristics is shown in Fig 5.11. The device
resistance Rdecreases substantially when its temperature T increases.
10000

R (N)

40
40 60

T(°c)
Fig 5.11: Resistance Vs Temperature

5.8 Optoelectronic Transducers

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5.8.1 Photoconductive Cell (LDR: Light Dependent Resistor)
When light strikes the surface of a material, it provides sufficient energy to cause electrons within the
material to break away from their atoms. These, free electrons and holes created within the material
reduces its resistance. This phenomenon is known as photoconductive effect.
The construction of a typical photoconductive cell is shown in Fig 5.12(a). Light -sensitive material in
long strip form zig-zagged across a disc-shaped plastic base. The connecting terminals are fitted to the
conducting material on each side of the strip. Generally, the materials used are Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)
and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).

Terminal 100k,
Termina!

Re (2)
00 &Teci
Conductor ECE,

Strip of photoresistive
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Dept 7 1000
c o f
!Iluminance
(a) Constructiond a y

Fuculty. (b) Illumination

Characteristics

Typical illumination in Fig 5.12(b). It is seen that when the cell is not
illuminated, the resistance is very high. This is known as dark resistance of the cell. When the cell is
illuminated, the resistance falls to a few hundred of ohms. The illuminative axis is logarithmic.
Application:

R, Photoconductive Cell

Rc

L Relay

Fig5.13: Relay Control Circuit

Fig 5.13 shows the circuit of a photoconductive cell used for relay control. When the cellls illuminated,
the resistance of the ccll Rç is low and the relay current is at its maximum. Thus, the relay is energized.

13
When the cell is dark, its biglh resistance keeps the current oo low and the relay is not energized.
Resistance A, is inuled to init the relay curent to the desred level when the cellresistance is low.
S.8.2 Photodiodes
Aphotnduxte is a light sensitive PN jnton diode capable ot converting ligbt into voltage or current. I
0s a photodetecor that generate voltag" or current when the P'N juntlon in the dlode is illmnated by
light of sulliwient energy. lts synbol is shown in Fig, 5.I4 (). It operales in reverse bias N shown in Fig
5.14 (h).

(u) (b)
g 14 (a).mbol (0) Reverse bias operatlon
Construction:The eross secttonalview of aplotodiode is shown in Py. S.I5. It consists ofa heavily
doped lP-type layer at the top, where it is exposed toincident light. The juntion depletion region
penetrates deeply into the lightly doped N-type layer which is In contact with lower, heavily doped Nt
layer. The N+ layer is connected to ametal im coutact.
Augte
nlaten laye
'N jwton
bopleion vgi

Metal ilm colacl

(atbde

Pg 515; Cnss sectionalview ofa photoxtiode

Working: lt operates in reverse bias. Under normal condition,the reverse saturation current is limited
to alew mieroanperes which is due to the thermally generated minority carriers in the n-type and p
(ype materials. When a photon (light) of sutticientenergy strikes the reverse biased PN junction, it will
transter the energy to the atomic structure, resulting in an inereased number of ninority carriers, These
generated minority mobile charge carriers (electrous and holes) eross the junction due to the internal
electric tield of the depletion region and results in current as shown in Fig.5.16a).
lnideat Photons
Photon(ligh)
Lens
() )

R
Depletten regton

()

14
 Fig 5.16: Working of photodiode
Fig 5.16(b) shows the basic biasing arrangement for aphotodiode. The lens concentrates the light on the
junction region.
V-ICharacteristics: Fig.5.17 shows the V-l characteristics of aphotodiode.
-40 -30 -20 -10

Dark currenl

50oIm/m² -200
1000 Im/m²
-400
1500 Im/m?
-600
2000 Im/m?
-800
2500 Im/m²
(HA)
Fig 5.17: VJ characteristics of photodiode
1lumens (Im)m² =1.496 x 10-10 W/n?
The dark current is the current that exists with no applied light (.e, current due to thermally generated
minority charge carriers only). The almost equal spacing between the individual curve for the same
increment in intensity of light reveals that the reverse current and intensity of light are linearly related.
The current can be made zero by applying of à small positive bias voltage equal to V, as shown in Fig.
Ud.versusthe lighti
5.17. The graph of reverse current Fig.5.18
College yIS Shown in

Fac

> (lumens/m")
Light intensity

Fig 5.18: Graph of I, Vs Lightintensity

5.9 Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezo - electricity is the ability of certain crystals and ceramics to produce electric charges when
mechanical stress is applied across them in certain specified orientations. The accumulation of charges
on the material surfaces will in turn give rise to a voltage across the material. It is illustrated in Fig 5.19(a).
The piezo -electric effect is reversible i.e, when an alternating voltage with the natural resonance
frequency of the crystal is applied to the surfaces, the crystal vibrates or resonates. It is illustrated in Fig
5.19(b).

15
 Voltage Mechanical Stress
A
Vibration Vibration Alternating
voltage

(a) (b)

Fig 5.19: (a) Chystal with mechanicalstress (b) Crystal with alternating voltage

Principle:
A piezo-electrictransducer is basically layer of crystal material between two metal plates. The crystal
material acts as dielectric. Thus, the device has a capacitance that can be calculated from its dimensions
and relative permittivity.

l ' .S T
Vibration Vibration Alternating
voltage
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Ud

Fig 5.20: lustration of piezo electric transducer

When the force is applied todistort the crystal, a charge is accumulated on the electrodes. The charge can
be calculated from,
Q= dF.......)
where Q= charge in Coulombs
d= charge sensitivity C/N
F= force in Newtons.
Also, the charge can be written as,
Q= C,V ........ (it)
where C= transducer capacitance
Vo= voltage across it.
The equation for capacitance is,
Cy = ...iii)

where E,= dielectric relative permittivity

E,= permittivity of free space.
A= plate area
16
 t= dielectric thickness.
Thus,
dF
gtp

Cy (E,E,A/t)
where Pf
= pressure
d
g = -=voltage sensitivity in Vm/N =a constant for a given transducer.
EoEy

Fig 5.21(a) shows a cylindrical shaped synthetic piezo-electric device with electrical contact plates at
each end. This can be used as a pressure transducer. Fig 5.21(b) shows another type of ceramic
piezoelectrical device called Bimorph. This type of crystal is called piez0-electric materials are used in
pressure transducers. Piezo-electric materials are available in both natural and synthetic form.

Plated contacts
Intèrnal contacts

contacts
(a) (b)
is2.) vlindrcal transducer (b) Bimorph

nlatediot
DXample: The transducer has sof 5mm x4mm. The crystal material has a 3mm thickness
and a relative permittivity of 800, The voltage sensitivity is 0.04 Vm/N. Calculate the transducer charge
sensitivity, the charge and the output voltage when the applied force is 8N.
Solution: Charge sensitivity d=E,&rg= 8.84 x 10-12 x 800 x 0.04 = 282.9 pC/N.
Charge Q = dF = 282.9 x 10-12 x 8 = 2.26 nC.
F
Pressure P=F A 5x10-3x4X10-3 0.4 X 106 N/m2
Thus, Output voltage V, = gtP = 0.04 x 3 x 10- x 0.4 x 106 = 48V.

Prepared by, Udaya Kumar. S

Faculty, Dept of E&CEngg
Alva's Institute of Engg &Tech, Moodbidri- D.K574225.

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