Unit 4

PART –A

1. 1.Write a note on kallani dam?

Kallanai Dam [Stone dam (Grand anicut)]
During the sangam period Chola Karikalan, built the Kallanai Dam *Stone dam (Grand anicut)+ in South India,
across the Cauvery river flowing from Tiruchirapalli District to Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu .The Cauvery River
splits into two at a point 32 km west of Kallanai. The two rivers form the Srirangam before joining at Kallanai. The
northern channel is called the Kollidam. A large amount of water passed onto the Kollidam leaving behind a small
volume for irrigation purposes.
It is considered to be the greatest technical achievement and it has been used for more than 2100 years.
Kallanai Dam is the fourth oldest water reclamation system in the world. The idea behind the construction of
the dam was to divert the river to the delta districts thereby boosting irrigation.

2. What is dam?
A dam is a barrier or a wall-like structure that stops or restricts the flow of surface water. A dam can also be used
to collect or store water, prevent water flow and distribute it into specific land regions.
3. Who did build kallani?
During the sangam period Chola Karikalan, built the Kallanai Dam *Stone dam (Grand anicut)+ in South India, across
the Cauvery river flowing from Tiruchirapalli District to Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu .
4. Explain lake.
Lakes are naturally occurring freshwater bodies. It is a standing water ecosystem (no moving water). A lake is a
relatively large surface area of hundreds of acres in size. It is located in a basin surrounded by completely dry land.
 Lakes are generally deeper and larger than ponds. It is different from rivers and streams. Water stored in lakes may
come from overland runoff during the rainy season, streams, or rivers. which is used for drinking water and
agricultural irrigation during summer.

5. What is semi soil or araiman?

The banks of the lake are built with mud. Along with the soil in the respective area some soil binding/compacting
materials are added to form semi soil and thus the banks of the lakes are formed.

6. Explain pond.
Ponds are in land freshwater bodies. It is formed naturally or artificially. Cover less space 5 hectares and less than 16
feet deep. This standing water gets polluted easily.
7. Mention various types of ponds

Type of ponds:
The ponds are different in terms of length, depth, water storage area, method of receiving water and discharge
method. Ponds also differ based on the usage. Use of irrigation for agriculture, Drinking water and temples.

Ponds are divided into two types, based on how they receive water.

Rainwater ponds/ Maanavari Ponds (collect and fill with rainwater)

River water ponds (canals or sluices).
8. What is wave stones?

Protection of pond depends on the strength of the bank. Stones have been placed in this area as a means of
preventing the stagnant water in the pond from causing a tidal wave in the inner part of the pond. These rocks act
as break waters and protect the shore from water erosion. These stones are named ‚Wave stones‛.
 9. Write four benefits of ponds?

Four benefits of a pond Conservation of water, 2. Drought prevention, 3.Flood control, 4.Protect environment

It was carried out by collection of water, storage, drainage and water supply.
10. Write the role of kulatuppalar.

Kulatuppallars: (responsible for the cleanliness of the lake)

chased away trespassers into the lake.

dispose of fallen dead matter *Goats, cows and people fall die+
clean the lake * plants and algae that grow+

11. Write a note on neervetiyar,madayar

Neervettiar: (responsible for bringing the water from the lake to the gates of the fields through drains). They are
the ones who monitor the water for the fields.
Madaiyars: section of people to open and close these madais

12. Write about kalingu?

 Kalingu: The Kalingu is constructed to drain the water and fill the pond above a certain level. . High tides cause
damage to the bank/shore of the pond and cannot hold as much water. There is also a risk of the pool breaking if
the excess water is not drained. the Kalingu protects the pond. Surplus water from Kalinga goes through drains and
fills other ponds, called leg ponds. In this way, there are successive ponds filled with surplus water from one pond,
Like a chain. It is designed to release the stored water in the pond for irrigation purposes

13. Mention common elements of ponds.

The common elements of Tamil Nadu ponds / water bodies are their banks, the Madai (மடை), Kumizhi thumbu
(Bubble incence) /Thumbu used to drain the water, kumiand the Kalingu to discharge the excess water.
14. Write a note on madai.
Madai is the lifeline of the lake. ‘Madai is like an open flood’. A dam /lake/ pond is a structure in which the water
stored in is released by the support of the bank through Madai. Opening a Madai is not an easy task. It has one
door, if it is opened, water gushes out in full. The amount of water cannot be increased or decreased, and cannot be
controlled. Madai is found not only in ponds/dams/lakes but also in river channels.

15. Write a note on mathagu/spillway (sluice).

It is also similar to Madai, but has a controlled water releasing side. The sluices can release the required amount
of water. Water can be controlled. A sluice is a gate established to divert water from dams, lakes, ponds or culverts
for irrigation of crops. When rainwater overflows and fills the lake, there is a risk of breaching the banks, and the
lake needs to be drained. As much water cannot be discharged through the sluices. Write a short note on muraipaanai?

16. Write about thangal and enthal?

A succession /consecutive of lakes is called a series of lakes. The first lake carries the rainwater from the aquifer,
called Enthal. The lakes in the back hold the water flowing from Enthal and other lakes and the water from the catchment
area of the respective lakes, so we call them Thangals.
 The runoff from the lands irrigated by these series of lakes flows into the successive lakes. Thus, a series of lakes are
well positioned to store more water and reuse the stored water multiple times for irrigation.

17. What is neerodi and serodi?

Below the ground level of the lake, a pipe system is laid so that the water flows through the hole in the box/
kalpetti. 'Dumpukkal' / pebble is used to close and open the hole for water to flow into the tank. There is a stone
frame to move the pilaster up and down.
When water is needed for irrigation, the pebble in the hole is sunk into the water and taken away. It is set up like a
stone box to let out only the required amount of water. There is a half-foot diameter hole at the top of this stone.
The name of this hole is Neerodi. This hole is covered with a stone like a pipe. There are two or three small holes in
the floor of the box. These are called Cherodi. It will be connected to the irrigation canal outside the lake by a
tunnel.

18. What is murai paanai?

‘Method pot’ (murai paannai)

They had something called a ‘method pot’ (murai paannai) to measure this flow of water. The pot is made of copper
which holds 10 liters of water, a small hole is drilled in the bottom of the pot, and the size of the piercing needle is also
said precisely in the songs of the Sangam period. At the same time, water for that field will also start flowing from the
cannal.

19. Explain, How was the intellectual capacity of the sangam people?
 Many parts of Tamil Nadu receive rain for only two months a year due to the northeast monsoon. Early agriculture
was raining dependent agriculture. If the rains do not fall in season, agriculture will be destroyed. The water
required for the whole year. Realizing all this, Sangam people used their ingenuity to create thousands of
lakes/ponds and collected and fully utilized the rainwater of those two months. They invented sluices and culverts
and installed them in lakes/ponds to use the collected water economically. Tamils excelled in irrigation water
management. 1000-years ago dams were built to provide water benefits to the people of the area.
20. Owners of agricultural land called?

Ploughman ( Uzhuthunbar (a) aerinvazhvar: ), Vellalar

:
Karalar (a) Kalamar, Uzhathiyars
21. Write a note on plough, talambu.
Plough/ Aeir
Aeir was called Aeri, Meli, Nanjil, kalappai . The kalappai was made of wood, iron or (a) steel frame and was used to compact
the soil by locking the sharp unit into it. Cattle were used to loosen and agitate the soil downwards.
Talambu - Nansei used a kind of tool called 'talambu' to break up the clods formed while plowing the land.
22. What are natural fertilizers?
Cattle dung was used as manure on plough lands. Green manures are still in use today. Fertilizer Crops, Agathi, Sanapai, Billi, Auri etc.
were used.

23. Name the crops cultivated during sangam period.

Rice, sugarcane, small grains, pulses, coconut, cotton, banana, tamarind, sandalwood etc. were cultivated during the Sangam
period. Paddy has been an important agricultural crop. The houses had trees like jackfruit, coconut and betel nut. They
 maintained a flower garden at the back of the house and turmeric at the front and all the villages became self-sufficient and the
surplus production was high.
24. Write short note on agricultural tax.
During the Sangam period taxes were levied on land and its produce. Landlords and peasants paid taxes. The land tax was known as
Irai / டற or karai/ டர. The production tax was called Tax/ and one-sixth of the harvest was collected as tax.
Additional grains were stored in public places and farmers' houses for collection called Warehouses / depository/ Kalanjiyam
ளஞ் சியம் .

25.Write anote on fisheries.

A fishery may be an enterprise that raises (or) harvests fish and other aquatic life. Usually the site where such an enterprise was
held was called a fishing ground.
Types of Fisheries
Two types based on sources of water resources
Marine Fisheries (a) Brackish water fisheries
Inland Fisheries (a) Freshwater Fisheries
About 500 million people worldwide depend economically on fisheries.

26. Write medicinal property of pearl?

1.If the Pearl is put in skimmed milk, it will float. If pearls are soaked in water and the water is drunk, the acidity in the
stomach will be neutralized and intestinal diseases will be prevented.
2.Pearl preserves smooth liver function.
3. It has diabetes control properties.
4. If pearls rich in calcium are worn and when they rub the body, the protein will be dissolved. As a result, the body heat will
subside.
Proofs
 1.Medical texts say that pearls give longer life.
2. The method of making the pearl into powder with the herbal juice is mentioned in Siddha medical texts.
3. Cleopatra, the world's most beautiful woman crushed a pearl and mixed it with wine and gave it to Mark Antony as dinner.
This is considered to be the most expensive dinner in the history of the world.

27. Write a note on salabam, muthusalabam and pavala salabam.

Places where pearls were grown in the sea were called salapam. Muthukulupu was also known as Muthu Salapam/pearl diving.
Thus Pavalkulpu was called Pavalak Salapam.

28. Define animal husbandry.

Animal husbandry is a branch of agriculture that deals with animals that are reared for fiber, milk and other products.
So they tamed wild animals to do their work and used them in many ways to generate income.
29. Mentions various uses of cattle for work.
 To produce milk.
 To increase the production of crops, pull the plough,
 To bring home the produce from the field
 To pull the cart, Cows were used to do similar work in the Middle East around 4000 BC.

30. Write about ice pond/ Panikulam

Ice/ Dew pond
A snow lake/Ice pond - artificial lake -located- top of a mountain.
Shape: shallow and saucer-shaped.
Used : designed for watering animals and to retain more rain.
Structure: These are lined with clay and gravel on top of an insulating layer of straw on top of the lime underlayer. Lime (a)
charcoal is mixed with the clay to prevent upward burrowing by earthworms. This makes the clay porous.The clay is usually covered
with straw to prevent cracking by the sun. Evaporation is reduced if the pool temperature is low. Thus the collected rainwater is
maintained. This ancient method of creating snow ponds was lost when the oxen disappeared from the hills
31. Name various types of land scapes.
It is widely known for its five types of thinais (landscapes) namely Kurinji, Mullai, Marutham, Neithal and Paalai, each with its own flora
and fauna, and other distinct traits that find a due place in the literary works.

PART -B

1.With a neat diagram explain the structure and function of kumizhi thumbu in sangam period?

Kumizhi thumbu (Bubble incense) :

Tamils have been managing irrigation water effectively by establishing a water management system with Kumizhithoombu in
the big lakes of Tamil Nadu 2,000 years ago. This bubble system not only provided water for irrigation but also prevented the lakes
from silting up and drying up.
Thumbu is made of Bamboo, Palm tree and Stone. In Sangha literature Thumbu refers to the word „Surungai‟.
The Tamils used a scientifically designed wonderful device/ tool to remove the accumulated turbidity/slit from the lake water.
releases water to irrigation canals

Structure of bubble incense:

The bubble incense is set to below the ground level 200-300 feet away from the lake shore. A pipe system is laid so that the
water flows through the hole in the box/ Kalpetti. 'Dumpukkal' / Pebble is used to close and open the hole for water to flow into the
tank. There is a stone frame to move the pilaster up and down.
When water is needed for irrigation, the pebble in the hole is sunk into the water and taken away. It is set up like a stone box to
let out only the required amount of water. There is a half-foot diameter hole at the top of this stone. The name of this hole is Neerodi
( ). This hole is covered with a stone like a pipe. There are two or three small holes in the floor of the box. These
are called Cherodi ( ). It will be connected to the irrigation canal outside the lake by a tunnel.
 The water coming to the lake brings silt and mud (alluvial soil is a good fertilizer for crops) along with water. If these
accumulate too much, the sluices will clog the lake. So they were removed carefully. Tamils used kumizhi remove silt from the lake.
This bubbler (kumizhi pillars) A box- like structure is formed from the stone and is perforated. It looks like a tunnel/ long tube. The
word thumbu (trunk of an elephant is equipped with a small hole) means small hole. Water enters and exits the box- like structure
through this hole. Its entrance is in the lake and its exit is in the irrigation canal outside the lake. When more silt accumulates in the
lake, this kumizhi (bubble) is opened and silt removed cleanly through the sluice hole. In this system under the lake, the water will
flow through the stream hole at a pressure lower than the water level of the lake, and the pressure of water under the lake will be high.
The pressure inside the chamber is less. Due to this, silt and slimy water will sweep in quickly through the hole.
80% of water comes out of the lake through the stream hole while 20% of the pulp water/ muddy water will come out through
the drain. This will reduce silting in the lake. Mixed with sugar, it becomes a nutritious compost /slurry for irrigation.
The Chola king Rajarajacholan cut a canal in the Cauvery from Mayanur and provided water to 1000 lakes along the way,
Parantaka Chola cut the Viranam lake to save Cauvery water from wasting.

2.Explain in detail about the kallani dam?

Kallanai Dam [Stone dam (Grand anicut)]
 Karikalan:
Original name of Karikal Peruvalathan is Thirumavalavan. Karikalan, (means a man with charred legs), the memory of a fire
accident in the early years of his life. Some scholars also hold the view kari and kalan are Tamil words meaning "slayer of elephants' '.
He is engaged in wars like the usual kings, but he also plants trees, cuts ponds, cattle and established hospitals. He played a major role
in increasing agriculture; his greatest work was constructing the Kallani on the Cauvery (Pattinpalai‟s lines).
Kallanai Dam:
During the sangam period Chola Karikalan, built the Kallanai Dam [Stone dam (Grand anicut)] in South India, across the
Cauvery river flowing from Tiruchirapalli District to Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu .The Cauvery River splits into two at a point 32
km west of Kallanai. The two rivers form the Srirangam before joining at Kallanai. The northern channel is called the Kollidam. A
large amount of water passed onto the Kollidam leaving behind a small volume for irrigation purposes.
It is considered to be the greatest technical achievement and it has been used for more than 2100 years. Kallanai Dam is the
fourth oldest water reclamation system in the world.
The idea behind the construction of the dam was to divert the river to the delta districts thereby boosting irrigation.
During floods, it is difficult to divert the river, Thus the ancient Tamils adopted the best technique, i.e.soil erosion ( If we
stand by a flowing river or a rippling beach, we can see that our feet gently sink into the soil as the water flows. The water will erode
the sand and our feet will sink into the soil.) . People sweep large rocks over the flowing stream. It slowly burrows into the sand until
it reaches the rock below, and then another rock in the same place. It also goes down and stays. When placed in this way, they used a
type of insoluble clay between two rocks. Large stones submerged in the Cauvery River to divert water flow into the delta region.
Big rocks are very difficult to find in the Tanjore area. Stone should be brought from Pudukottai or from Trichy area or from
further away.
River Cauvery forms the boundary between Salem and Erode districts. In Bhavani town, the Bhavani River joins the Cauvery
River (kooduthurai) and the Sangameswarar Temple, a famous pilgrimage site, is located at the junction of these two rivers. Due to its
magnificent architecture, it is one of the major tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.
Sir Arthur Cotton, an English engineer, admires the technology used in the construction of this dam. He took off his hat and
said, „I bow to the ancestors who built this Cauvery dam, who have taught me the technology of building dams in flowing water‟.

In his 1874 paper 'Sir Arthur Cotton' mentioned that many irrigation engineering constructions such as river bridges and dams were
easy to complete because of the foundation lessons learned from the Tamils.
In 1874, Sir Arthur Cotton built the Dhauleeswaram dam across the Godavari based on this stone technology.
In 1853, an English engineer named Baird Sumiti, Kallanai was mentioned as a great engineering achievement.In his book
'Irrigation of South India', written by Sri Lankan thread.
British Army Engineer Captain Caldwell was appointed in 1804 to survey and improve irrigation for the Deltas. During the
survey he noticed that the Kollidam was overflowing with water and that only a small amount of water was being released into the
Kallanai Dam for irrigation of the delta areas which was then raised on the advice of Captain Caldwell.

3. Water management in sangam period.

Many parts of Tamil Nadu receive rain for only two months a year due to the Northeast monsoon, South west monsoon. Early
agriculture was raining dependent agriculture. If the rains do not fall in season, agriculture will be destroyed. The water required for
the whole year. Realizing all this, Sangam people used their ingenuity to create thousands of lakes/ponds and collected and fully
utilized the rainwater of those two months. They invented sluices and culverts and installed them in lakes/ponds to use the collected
water economically. Tamils excelled in irrigation water management. 1000-years ago dams were built to provide water benefits to the
people of the area.
Sangam poets asked the rulers of those days to build water bodies like lakes, ponds and ponds. They pointed out that
development in irrigation is the root cause of all success of a country. The rulers accepted it and implemented it.
Lakes („Aeri‟) and canals have been a backbone to our culture since ancient times, regulating and transforming the landscape
to make agriculture possible. “Tanks, or Aeri, were not built to tame or exploit land and water. It was a measure taken to regulate
water bodies to make the land suitable for agriculture.
Dam in the Sangam period:
A dam is a barrier or a wall-like structure that stops or restricts the flow of surface water. A dam can also be used to collect or store
water, prevent water flow and distribute it into specific land regions.

Structural Elements of Dams:

The three main parts of a dam:
Water-retaining structure, Water-releasing structure, Water conveying structure.

Advantages of dam:
The dams provide a range of environmental, economic and social benefits. One of the most important benefits of dams is water
storage. The stored water is used for drinking, cleaning, bathing, gardening, irrigation purposes, and industrial purposes.
Lake:
Lakes are naturally occurring fresh water bodies. It is a standing water ecosystem (no moving water in it). A lake is a relatively
large surface area of hundreds of acres in size. It is located in a basin surrounded by completely dry land. Lakes are generally deeper
and larger than ponds. It is different from rivers and streams. Water stored in lakes may come from overland runoff during the rainy
season, streams, or rivers. which is used for drinking water and agricultural irrigation during summer.
 Chembarambakkam Lake
It is not a common practice to bring the water of the overflowing river through canals to the lake. It requires a lot of
technology to bring that water to the lake even when the water in the river was low. How to distribute the river water to the water
bodies next to it without blocking the river water completely and filling only its own reservoir.
There are people allotted for certain works.

Niranikakars:

 fully responsiblefor bringing river water to water bodies

 Seeking permission for Fishing in the lake, running on Parisil ( ர சில் ),
 provide water for irrigation when water level is low.

Kariyar (responsible for the lake shore):

 The life of a lake lies on its shores.
 If the shore breaks, it will destroy itself and the people who depended on it.
 That is why the bank of the lake is important.
Kulatuppallars: (responsible for the cleanliness of the lake)
 chased away trespassers into the lake.
 dispose of fallen dead matter [Goats, cows and people fall die]
 clean the lake [ plants and algae that grow]
 Neervettiar: (responsible for bringing the water from the lake to the gates of the fields through drains). They are the ones who
monitor the water for the fields.
Madaiyars: section of people to open and close these madais
Mathagu, Madai, Kumizhi, on the banks of the lake to release water for irrigation and during floods. The Tamils were very
careful to make the banks strong.
All over the world, when lakes are built, they first build an inner wall of clay to prevent the lake water from seeping out.

Semi soil / Araiman :

The banks of the lake are built with mud. Along with the soil in the respective area some soil binding/compacting materials are
added to form semi soil and thus the banks of the lakes are formed.

Enthals and Thangals:

A succession /consecutive of lakes is called a series of lakes. The first lake carries the rainwater from the aquifer, called
Enthal. The lakes in the back hold the water flowing from Enthal and other lakes and the water from the catchment area of the
respective lakes, so we call them Thangals.
The runoff from the lands irrigated by these series of lakes flows into the successive lakes. Thus, a series of lakes are well
positioned to store more water and reuse the stored water multiple times for irrigation. Most of the last ponds have temples. Once the
last pool is full, pooja, abhishekam etc. will be done in it.

Pools/ponds:
 Ponds are freshwater bodies. It is formed naturally or artificially. Cover less space 5 hectares and less than 16 feet deep. This
standing water gets polluted easily.
Type of ponds:
The ponds are different in terms of length, depth, water storage area, method of receiving water and discharge method. Ponds
also differ based on the usage. Use of irrigation for agriculture, Drinking water and temples.
Ponds are divided into two types, based on how they receive water.
1. Rainwater ponds/ Maanavari Ponds (collect and fill with rainwater)
2. River water ponds (canals or sluices).
Its protection depends on the strength of the bank. Stones have been placed in this area as a means of preventing the stagnant
water in the pond from causing a tidal wave in the inner part of the pond. These rocks act as break waters and protect the shore from
water erosion. These stones are named “Wave stones”.

Benefits of pond:
1. Conservation of water, 2.Drought prevention, 3.Flood control, 4.Protect environment
It was carried out by collection of water, storage, drainage and water supply.

Kalingu:

The Kalingu is constructed to drain the water and fill the pond above a certain level. Kalingu is designed to release the stored
water in the pond for irrigation purposes. High tides cause damage to the bank/shore of the pond and cannot hold as much water.
There is also a risk of the pool breaking if the excess water is not drained. To avoid this, Surplus water from Kalinga goes through
drains and fills other ponds, called leg ponds. In this way, there are successive ponds filled with surplus water from one pond, Like
a chain. These ponds bear witness to the water management of the Tamils.
Evidence: Valluvar in the poem „Sutranthalal‟ the need to keep his relative. The meaning of these words is that the life of a king who
does not live in harmony with his relative is like a pond full of water without a bank.

Common elements:

The common elements of Tamil Nadu ponds / water bodies are their banks, the Madai (மடை), Thumbu used to drain the water, and
the Kalingu to discharge the excess water.

Madai: ( )
Madai is the lifeline of the lake. „Madai is like an open flood‟. Madai is found not only in ponds/dams/lakes but also in river
channels. Opening a Madai is not an easy task. It has one door, if it is opened, water gushes out in full. The amount of water cannot be
increased or decreased, and cannot be controlled.

Madai (மடை) Mathagu/Sluice

Mathagu/Sluice:
It is also similar to Madai, but has a controlled water releasing side.
A sluice is a gate established to divert water from dams, lakes, ponds or culverts for irrigation of crops. When rainwater
overflows and fills the lake, there is a risk of breaching the banks, and the lake needs to be drained. As much water cannot be
discharged through the sluices. Then the gate should be opened. The sluices can release the required amount of water.
Sarungai, Budavu, Madaghu, Kumizhi, Dhoombu, Madai during Sangam period these were made of wood or stone. They can
open and close manually.

Kumizhi thumbu (Bubble incense) :

 Tamils have been managing irrigation water effectively by establishing a water management system with Kumizhithoombu in
the big lakes of Tamil Nadu 2,000 years ago. This bubble system not only provided water for irrigation but also prevented the lakes
from silting up and drying up.
Thumbu is made of Bamboo, Palm tree and Stone. In Sangha literature Thumbu refers to the word „Surungai‟.
The Tamils used a scientifically designed wonderful device/ tool to remove the accumulated turbidity/slit from the lake water.
releases water to irrigation canals

„Method pot‟ (murai paannai)

They had something called a „method pot‟ (murai paannai) to measure this flow of water. The pot is made of copper which
holds 10 liters of water, a small hole is drilled in the bottom of the pot, and the size of the piercing needle is also said precisely in the
songs of the Sangam period. At the same time, water for that field will also start flowing from the cannal.

Maintenance of lakes and ponds:

Sangam poets asked the rulers of those days to build water bodies like lakes, ponds and ponds. He pointed out that
development in irrigation is the root cause of all success of a country. The rulers accepted it and implemented it.
While constructing water bodies a king should look after some 5 features
king who builds water reservoir, will have a place in heaven
"Pond cutting" is the first aspect.
Building the 'Kalingu' is the 2nd aspect.
'Varathukal‟ and cannal (brings water to the Lake (eri), the system of sluices) (vaikal) 3 aspect
rd

Ayakattu is the 4th aspect

Common well is the 5th aspect
வ ட டல ் ற் சிடற ல

வ ் ் ய டமய ம்

The earliest of Tamil literature, Tolkaapiyam, draws comparison between a warrior marching to take on a mighty army, and
the dams that stop the force of flowing water. In doing so, the song elaborates on the importance of dams ( ற் சிடற).
் ள ் வல ் ல

் ்ட ம் ல் மற ் ள

Akananuru from Sangam is introspective, the songs are informed by a very sensitive concern for nature and environment. It
mentions how a mother would sacrifice her sleep to protect the child, just like a man appointed to keep guard at the lakes.
One among the five great epics, Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal speaks of the king who makes his country fertile by
harvesting the rain water through construction of lakes and tanks, and puts them to good use.
டை ் மடழ ய் ்

டழய டள ள் வளம் ர ்

மடழ ்( ) ் ைம ் வ ்

It is estimated that there are more than 39000 lakes in Tamil Nadu. Our ancestors created and maintained more than 40 water
sources. Man- made water structures, has many names Ilanchi, Kayam, Keni, Kotakam, Eeri, Malangan, Madu, Odai, Vavi,
Salandaram, Vattam, Tagakam, Nalini, Poikai, Kuttam, Kitangu, Kulam, Kanmai, etc. These were created from the Sangam period to
the entry of the British into our country. This generation knows only a few bodies of water like lakes, ponds and rivers.
Renovation and maintenance of those water bodies is enough to prevent water shortage in Tamil Nadu. It can be seen from the
following evidence that Some of them are described with proof.
1. That's why Thiruvalluvar placed the power of rain next to the blessing of God.
2. The Ilangovadis started their Kappiyam by praising Kathiravan, Thingodu and Vanamalai.

. ( :1: 1-9)

3.Kudapulavianar ( ை ல ய ர் ), a scholar who lived in the 2nd century BC, told the rich Pandyan Nedunjehiya. Who
created the water and the earth and gave birth to body and life (puram: 18)
4.During the Sangam period of 200 years ago, old people used to bury their dead in thazhis. Many of them have been found near water
bodies like lakes and ponds.
In Madurai district alone, 50 Sangam lakes and ponds have been discovered near the burial sites of old people. These lakes and ponds
are still in use.
5. 20 Kms from Dindigul. In distant Athtur, three ponds namely Karunkulam, Bagadaikulam and Pulvettikulam are located at the
same place. By: Ancient wisdom - irrigation tanks, by S.M.Ratnavel and P.Gomathinayagam.
Among the three ponds, a large pond is divided into three. Each has a higher level than the other, the first pond has a higher
ground level than the second pond and the second pond has a higher ground level than the third pond.
Very high lands are irrigated with the first tank.
The lands next to it are irrigated with the second pond.
Very low-lying lands are irrigated through a third tank.
Archaeologists say that these ponds are more than 2100 years old. Old people's graves have been found near it. These pools are
still in use. These ponds are technologically sophisticated, and many Sangam lakes and ponds are still in use today.
Destruction of Pond / Lakes
 Sangam words say that breaking lakes is a great sin, but there has been a king or two throughout history who did not respect
this. Enemies who cannot be defeated in a fair fight also destroy water bodies like this.
Their destruction was considered a great tragedy. This can be seen in the following Sangapadal of Bulavar Kapilar who lived
in the 3rd century BC, the small pond with curved banks and clear water resembling the eighth day crescent on Bari's Parambu Hill
with its sharp work and rounded shoulders is deteriorating due to lack of protection.

4.Expalin Tamils agriculture during sangam age.

Usage of land for cultivation:
The Sangam Tamils were skilled in cultivating the land and preparing it for agriculture, knowing the nature of the land and acting
accordingly.
Paddy fields were ploughed with the help of bullocks. In Kalani the farmers trampled the leaves and drowned them. After the
seedlings grow, they are transplanted. Then the weeds were picked.
Plough/ Aeir
Aeir was called Aeri, Meli, Nanjil, kalappai . The kalappai was made of wood, iron or (a) steel frame and was used to compact the soil
by locking the sharp unit into it. Cattle were used to loosen and agitate the soil downwards.
Parambu :A tool called a wooden pole (or) tree was used to level the cultivated land without ridges or ditches.
This frame was used to clear the field of weeds with the help of cows.
Plough/ Aeir Parambu Talambu - Sugarcane squeezer

Talambu - Nansei used a kind of tool called 'talambu' to break up the clods formed while plowing the land.
Sugarcane squeezer A sugarcane squeezer was used to cut the harvested sugarcane and extract the juice from it. (Purananuru)

Natural fertilizers
Only natural fertilizers were used during the Sangam period. They applied natural fertilizers to the fields before and after ploughing.
Green manures are still in use today. Fertilizer Crops, Agathi, Sanapai, Billi, Auri etc. were used. Cattle dung was used as manure on
plowed lands. (puram, 108-60)

Selection of seed
As early as the Sangam period, Tamils realized the importance of selecting seeds and protecting them from pests . Seeds were dried
and then used for sowing.(Purananuru song)
 Traditional rice varities
Irrigation for agriculture:
During the Sangam period, people depended heavily on rain for water needed for agriculture. Later they created ponds, lakes, dams
etc. to store water. Later sluices, kumizhithombu etc. were constructed to regulate water for irrigation.
Sometimes to control the river floods and to divert water for irrigation, earthen embankments were raised and to divert water for
irrigation. Finally water is stored in reservoirs used for irrigation needs through canals
People learned to dig wells and use groundwater for agriculture as early as the Sangam period. They used cows and buffaloes for
drawing water from wells.
Water drawing tools:
There are two types of water in hydrology.
(i) secretion water,
(ii) Surface water
(i) secretion water: As the underground water is hidden, it is called secretion water. (well, springs)
(ii) Surface water: The water that is available on the surface of the earth.(ponds, lakes and puddles)is called surface water.
Run-off water was used for irrigation using booms. This is illustrated by the following song by Porunar Aatrupadi. The word boom is
still in the village.
Types of boom:
Box booming: The land near the creek is slightly elevated.
A triangular basket made of bamboo is tied at both ends with a rope and two people hold it on either side and one person stands on
the bank and pulls the water. This is called box pumping.

Man booming: Man blooming is used for shallow wells to a slightly deeper location. By one (a) two people walking on a single
stone, the water goes into the water and the water rises up. A man on the bank pulls the road with a rope and diverts the water into the
channel.
Weight bearing:
While digging a well, heavy lifting is a method used in rural areas to take out the well soil.
A tall pole is tied on the bank of the well. a lever is mounted on the shaft. The pole is tied with rope from the tip.
Weight bearing Kavalaiyertram or kabilai/ kamalai
Kavalaiyertram or kabilai/ kamalai:
Cows are called kapilai. Farmers used a technology called kapilai to draw water from deep wells for irrigation.
A water-pumping container is made of skin called Pari (or) Also made of tin. The reeds are firmly fixed in the stone so as to extend
into the well, and the rope is tied by the rope; They will pull the cow with the help of a wheel called a cylinder by connecting ropes
etc. to make the water pour out. Covering the water path with a black stone board so that the cows can move forward and backward is
probably the greatest engineering technique.

Rotational system (a) Multi-crop cultivation

Crop rotation was followed during the Sangam period itself. For example, cotton and small grains were grown in the same season.
After that he was cultivated. Small grains were cultivated in marginal or semi-arid land areas. At the same time as the paddy harvest,
the farmers of Kosala cultivated various crops.
Crops Cultivated in Sangam Period
Rice, sugarcane, small grains, pulses, coconut, cotton, banana, tamarind, sandalwood etc. were cultivated during the Sangam period.
Paddy has been an important agricultural crop. The houses had trees like jackfruit, coconut and betel nut. They maintained a flower
garden at the back of the house and turmeric at the front and all the villages became self-sufficient and the surplus production was
high.
Catapult:
They used catapults called kavans to repel animals and birds.
It is used to target and kill animals.
Loud speaker:
young women , kuravan, kurathis used sound making instruments to drive away the birds.
Flares and Blowers
Fireballs and blowers were used to drive away wild animals, especially elephants, from the fields.
Sickle: sickle was used to harvest the ripe paddy and corn kernels.
Sacks:
Grains such as paddy, corn and rye were harvested, sprinkled in the field and stored in sacks.

Agricultural Activities (or) Tools and techniques required for agriculture

During the Sangam period Cultivation was done in a very systematic way. Ploughing, sowing, fertilizing, weeding irrigation, crop
production, protection and storage. They lived richly by doing irrigation and crop protection properly. They made and used various
tools needed for plowing and harvesting in agriculture.
Harvest:
Matured crop harvested. The harvested paddy was brought to the field and threshed into the ground to separate the kernels. Paddy
grains were collected, weighed and stored in proper containers.

Measurement of agricultural land and materials:Valuation of Agricultural Lands and Goods

A smaller piece of land was called a “ma” and a larger piece of land was called a “veli.” A fence was equal to one hundred Kuzhis
pits.
In Silapathikaram this festival is written under the title "Aeir Mangalam".
They used tuni, nazhi, cher, kalam ( , , ர், லம் ) and other scales to measure the weight of things.
Ambanam, nazhi, padaku, wooden poles etc. were used to measure grains. Scales were in the case under the name Tulakol /physical
balance were used by people.

ழ ் ல ் ல் ல் ை் ம்
Agricultural Tax
During the Sangam period taxes were levied on land and its produce. Landlords and peasants paid taxes. The land tax was known as
Irai / டற or karai/ டர. The production tax was called Tax/ and one-sixth of the harvest was collected as tax.
Additional grains were stored in public places and farmers' houses for collection called Warehouses / depository/ Kalanjiyam
ளஞ் சியம் .

5. Explain in detail about pearl, pearl diving carried out.

Pearl
It is believed that pearls were discovered, when primitive man wandered the beaches in search of food.
 Closely associated with human history.
 Oldest gemstones in the world since prehistoric times.
 One of the precious gemstones of Navaratnams.
 solid, translucent, white in color and spherical (a) oval in shape.
 Spherical pearls - Animuthu high quality pearls.
Mode of pearl formation:
1. Natural pearl
Pearls are obtained from the pearl oyster. Pearl is formed on the inner shell of pearl oysters and blue oysters. Natural Pearl is a
valuable, finished product, do not need polish.
Naturally grown pearls, when any parasites, small organisms, shells enter the oyster, it creates an explosion, and the oyster
secretes a knocker-like liquid to protect itself and cover the object that entered.
The longer the material remains in the oyster, the more layers of nacker liquid settle on it, turning it into a precious pearl.
Similarly, even if a small grain of sand enters, it becomes a pearl.
2. Artificial pearl
A pearl is not a mineral. It is formed by two minerals, calcium carbonate, aragonite and calcite. These two minerals differ in their
crystallinity.
Aragonite is formed by red square crystals.
Calcite is formed by triangular crystals.
pearls are formed by the ingestion of minerals such as aragonite and calcite which are mixed with a binding fluid called ganghelin
(protein) in the stomach of oysters.
Proof:
The Chinese inserted a small Buddha statue made of lead into the oyster while its mouth was open. After some time, when the oyster
is opened, the Buddha statue is encased in pearly liquid.
In ancient China, pearl necklaces were believed to bring purity to the wearer.
The Japanese feed small grains of grain through the oyster's mouth. The knocker liquid is read on it and the well grown pearl is taken
out.
Duration for formation of pearls:
Pearls take 5-6 years to form in good water. Pearls take 5 - 20 years to form in salt water.
An oyster can make up to 60 pearls in its lifetime.
Nature gives us the pearl as a finished product. Nacre formed on the inner shell of pearl oysters and dark blue An excellent pearl will
be in the form of spherical shape. However, oysters. some other forms are also commonly found.
There is no need to polish or brighten the natural pearls.
Sanctity of Pearl
Pearls are generally symbols of purity, holiness, perfection, etc., and represent human qualities such as virtue, love, wisdom, justice,
spirituality and fairness.
Proofs
1. In ancient China, pearl jewelry was believed to bring purity to those who wore them.
2. In the Dark Ages, warriors considered that wearing pear! would give them protection.
Medical Properties of Pearls
1.If the Pearl is put in skimmed milk, it will float. If pearls are soaked in water and the water is drunk, the acidity in the stomach will
be neutralized and intestinal diseases will be prevented.
2.Pearl preserves smooth liver function.
3. It has diabetes control properties.
4. If pearls rich in calcium are worn and when they rub the body, the protein will be dissolved. As a result, the body heat will subside.
Proofs
1.Medical texts say that pearls give longer life.
2. The method of making the pearl into powder with the herbal juice is mentioned in Siddha medical texts.
3. Cleopatra, the world's most beautiful woman crushed a pearl and mixed it with wine and gave it to Mark Antony as dinner. This is
considered to be the most expensive dinner in the history of the world.
Pearls during the Sangam Period
The earliest reference to pearls comes from China during the Sangam period. Pearls were gifted to Chinese royalty as early as 2300
BC.
1.One of the oldest books in China, the 'Sho King', published in 2350 BC, mentions pearls found in the Hewai River and in the series
of pearl rewards given after death.
Proofs

2.Lead Buddha
China is credited with producing the first cultured pearls by inserting tiny lead Buddha statues of the pearl oysters around 1000 AD.
3.Pearls in Quran
Pearls are referred to in holy books such as the Quran.
4.The New Testament (Bible)
References to pearls are found in both the New and Old Testaments.
Proofs
Mathew 2 notes; Resurrection 4 notes; Timothy 2 notes.
Pearls as Jewelry
Even before the 420 Century BC, it is evident that pears were used as jewelry. Prior to the period before the 4th Century BC
pearls had been used as decorative items in Egypt.
Proof
1. A piece of broken pearl jewelry has been found on the body of a Persian Princess in an ancient stone coffin dating back to 420
BC at the Louvre Museum in Paris,
2. There is evidence of the pearl trade during the reign of Alexander the Great in the 4th Century BC.
Pearls in Sangam literature
There are many accounts of pearls in Sangam literature. It is understood from the following proof that Avaiyar sang that
pearls were abundant in the Pandyan country and the Pandyan was famous for pearls.
Korkai pearls:
Korkai was the primary capital of the Pandyas till 130 AD. It became the port and the second capital of the Pandyas. highly valued
and the pearls found were the d the following Nartinai and Ingurunooru tell us. It is said the pearls were literature that the pearl trade
went on extensively.
Nartinai 23; Kanakayanar
In the Korkai beach, the sea waves pile up pearls on the shore. These pearls get stuck in the hooves of the man's horse and
hinder it. The following Agananooru verse states that the pearls are found scattered to this extent.
Agananooru 130: 9-11 Venkannanar
Pearls Musiri
Pearls were also found in the port of Musiri, These pearls were sold in a town called Bandar. (Arabic word Bandar means the
port)
proof:
Pearls are generally symbols of purity, holiness, perfection, etc., and represent human qualities such as virtue, love, wisdom, justice,
spirituality, and fairness.
In the Dark Ages, warriors believed wearing pearl jewelry to protect them
The use of pearls as jewelry is evident from before the 420th century BC. Pearls have been used as decorative items in Egypt since
before the 4th century BC.
Musiri Muthu
It is evident from the following evidence that Avvaiyar sang that Pandya Southern pearls were world famous.
(Nineteen.7-Eighty, 7th)
Pearl hunting:
Pearling (or) Pearl picking (a) Pearl hunting is a method of taking pearls from the molluses known as pearls living in the deep parts of
the ocean through proper diving training and bringing them to the surface of the ocean.
Mode of Pearl hunting:
Salapam and Muthu Salapam
Places where pearls were grown in the sea were called salapam. Muthukulupu was also known as Muthu Salapam/pearl diving. Thus
Pavalkulpu was called Pavalak Salapam.
Sammati and bathers:
Bharatava bathers with proper diving training tie a net around their waist and dive into the sea.
They spread the net, collect the pearls there, come up and dump them in the boats and rest for a while. Then dive back into the water
and pick oysters. Thus Muthuklupu will be done from morning till evening. In the evening they bring the oysters and clinchels they
have collected in boats to the beach, spread them on the sand, break the shells and take out the pearls inside.
Training for swimmers:
Finding and collecting deep sea molluscs, such as pearl oysters and fresh water mussels requires special skills and training. Bathers
should be generally stout, broad – chested and dark skinned.
Shark charming:
The pearl-bathing Bharatas must have been attacked by sharks frequently. They have recited the mantra 'Shark Vasiyam' to prevent
this danger caused by sharks and save them from sharks.
Generally, Antanars sit on the shore and recite mantras to prevent harm from marine life while collecting the pearl. He would bind the
mouths of sea creatures like sharks and whales with his magic power. After collecting them in the evening, alternate mantras are
recited and the mouth of sea creatures is untied. (Agananooru -350)
Bharathavars right in pearl hunting:
The Bharatas had the ability and right to collect pearls. Bharatavas were known as bathers. They are pearl bathers by profession. They
also engage in conch bathing. Pandyan kings supported them. During the period when the Pandyas were powerful, they not only
exempted the from general taxation but also protected them. The Bharatavas did business by getting special privileges compared to
others.
Proof
Italian traveler Marco Polo wrote about the ``Pearl Bathing'' in his book ``Trurks of Marcapila'' in Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu.
Caldwell, an upper country scholar, in his book also elaborated on the story of Bharatavar pearling in the kayal port.
Permission and the role for pearl hunting:
Since the Sangam era, pearl hunting in the sea should be done only after obtaining the king's permission. One-tenth of the collected
pearls should be given to the king and one-twentieth to the Brahmin chanting the mantra. Apart from this, when pearls of the best
value are found, the king buys them from the merchants at a price.
Convicted criminals as pearl hunters:
Sangam literature states that the Pandya‟s generally conducted pearl hunting with convicted criminals. Korkai pattinam belonged to
the pandyan kingdom. Evidences suggest that convicted criminals were mostly used for pearl hunting.
Proof
Periblues wrote about it in the maritime reports

6. Animal husbandry/cattle management /care during sangam period.

Animal husbandry is a branch of agriculture that deals with animals that are reared for fiber, milk and other
products.
So they tamed wild animals to do their work and used them in many ways to generate income.

Animal Care:
There is a lot of historical evidence and many scientific facts have been established that man was born from ape. The Greek word
„zoology‟ has become a common term for zoology in all European countries. Indus Valley finds include animal motifs and seals.
Animal husbandry is considered to be associated with God incarnation.
Christianity portrays Jesus as the shepherd of the flock and the seeker of lost or strayed sheep.
In Hinduism, the pastoral life of 'Krishna' is a source of inspiration for cattle breeders.
Animal husbandry during the royal period:
Cattle were a symbol of wealth during the Sangam period. If a king wants to provoke another king to war, the first thing he
does is to capture the cattle that are grazing on the border of the neighboring country and bring them to his country.
The knowledge of animals was very clear among the tamils. Fifteen types of male animals, and thirteen kinds of female
animals. The ancient genealogical records (Nulpa. 2 to 26) also indicate their youthful names. Discriminates and senses from
omniscient to omniscient, on a clear scientific basis. (Thol.Marabu.27).

The first domesticated animals

Sheep were the animals that came with the nomads in the middle east. Then cattle and pigs were associated. The first domesticated
wild animal of sangam people was the dog. Semi- wild dogs came forward for hunting.
Pigs were reared between 8500 and 8000 BC.
In South Asia, the elephant was domesticated around 6000 BC.
Horses began their domestication around 3000 BC in the grasslands
In 1000 BC, Arabian camels were bred for carrying loads.
Fossil chicken bones dated to 5040 BC have been found in northeastern China.
It is said that industry is an activity that generates income for one‟s livelihood and economic fulfillment and is one of the most
essential factors of economic development of a country. Industry is a catalyst for human and social development. A person‟s status in
society is determined by his profession.

Characteristics of Domestic Animals

1. Domestic animals must be useful to the breeder.
2. Must be able to thrive in the company of a breeder.
3. To reproduce freely and Should be easy to grow.
4. Must be able to raise them easily.
Cattle for various activities
1. Cattle for agricultural activity
A hundred years ago those who owned large numbers of cows were considered farmers of social status. Plowing the field, improving
the soil, Bullocks were used for many tasks like fighting, carrying bags of paddy to houses, from which animal husbandry was
considered important during the Sangam period.

2. Livestock for nutritional food

Cows provide nutritious food like milk, curd, butter and buttermilk as gifts to cow breeders. And their meat was human nutrition.

3. Cattle for jallikattu and for heroic sports:

Jallikattu has been one of Tamil Nadu's heroic sports since the Sangam period till today.
It is said that the custom of giving his daughter in marriage to the warrior who tamed the bull he reared was prevalent in the
villages of Tamil Nadu earlier.
In this way, since the Sangam period, cattle have been maintained, literature says.

Use of cattle for work (a) Draft animals

 To produce milk .
 To increase the production of crops, pull the plough,
 To bring home the produce from the field
 To pull the cart, Cows were used to do similar work in the Middle East around 4000 BC.
Well:
 A well is a deep hole dug into the ground to access natural resources (a) shaft.
 Wells have been used in many cultures around the world for over 8000 years.
 Wells designed by the Sangam people for drinking and bathing purposes.
 The first wells were probably dug by hand (a) with very simple tools.
 They stored water and provided access to bring groundwater to the surface.
Indus Dubai
Ice/ Dew pond
A snow lake/Ice pond - artificial lake -located- top of a mountain.
Shape: shallow and saucer-shaped.
Used : designed for watering animals and to retain more rain.

Structure: These are lined with clay and gravel on top of an insulating layer of straw on top of the lime underlayer. Lime (a)
charcoal is mixed with the clay to prevent upward burrowing by earthworms. This makes the clay porous.The clay is usually covered
with straw to prevent cracking by the sun. Evaporation is reduced if the pool temperature is low. Thus the collected rainwater is
maintained. This ancient method of creating snow ponds was lost when the oxen disappeared from the hills
There is evidence that this ice pond was used for cattle during the Sangam period.
1. Mayamatham: Kodumudi s. Shanmugam mentions that we had an engineering book called 'Mayamatham' which explained
constructions such as excavation etc.
2.Ganavallium - It is a document that describes the nature of the land for drilling a well.
3.Koomanul: This is a book about water bodies.
4. A farmer born in 1850 tells how their ancestors made ice ponds.
A hole of required size is dug and a layer of lime is laid down. It was ground well by bullocks locked on a heavy stone wheel, then
sprinkled with water and ground well with this wheel for a whole day to form a paste (cream). After a few days, without snow or
heavy rain, the lime will become as hard as cement as a bridge.
5.In 1865, the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society mentioned Panikkulam. In this the source of water is believed to be rain
instead of snow (or) fog.
6.The Field 12 December 1907 described a method of forming a base layer using lime slurry.
7.According to researcher Edward Martin, this can be achieved by building the pool in a hollow, where cold air gathers (a) and
keeping the surrounding grass long enough to increase heat radiation. As the water level drops in the basin, cool, moist air forms at the
surface of the well, limiting evaporation.