Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Research
1.1 Ways of acquiring knowledge
There are two methods of acquiring knowledge. These are:
 The non-scientific methods and
 The scientific methods
a. The non-scientific methods
 Personal experiences (knowledge gained from a person’s exposure; limited in scope
and could be misleading)
 Informal knowledge (knowledge gained from others e.g. authority)
 Commonsense knowledge is the basic knowledge that people use to make sense of
everyday situations. It includes facts about the world, such as how physical objects
work, how to recognize them, and how they interact with each other. It encompasses
intuitive understandings such as the inability to fit large objects into smaller spaces
and the fact that water boils at 212°F under normal conditions.
 Intuition: Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge, without recourse to conscious
reasoning or needing an explanation.
 Rationalism: the use of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion or knowledge.
 Empiricism: that if something is experienced, then it must exist and therefore the
experience must be valid and true.
 Authority: from persons who have some kind of influence over us.
Knowledge gained via these sources is private, subjective and cannot be subject to objective
testing.
b. The scientific method
 Aim - Knowledge production through construction and testing of theories.
 It is a generalized process of obtaining new and reliable knowledge.
 Must have three characteristics of: Being objective or involving objective testing, logical
reasoning, and follow systematic procedure.
The scientific procedures involve:
1. Careful Observation
2. Problem identification

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 3. Literature review
4. Hypotheses formulation
5. Design of the study
6. Data gathering/analysis
7. Interpretation/conclusions
8. Reporting findings
1.2. The meaning of research
 The word research comes from the now obsolete French word ‘recherché’ which means
to search in-depth and to ‘to investigate thoroughly’. In a very generic perspective, the
study aims at discovering. Research comprises of intellectual investigation of human
efforts aimed at discovering, interpreting, and updating knowledge on different aspects. It
is an organized and systematic way of finding solutions to problems.
 Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.
 “Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose with intent to
contribute to the existing body of knowledge”.
 “Research is a scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific
topic.”
Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of research:
 Research attempts to discover cause and effect.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
 Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help
in understanding, prediction and/or control.
 Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology;
technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

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 Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great
pains to validate the procedures employed.
 Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the
problem or questions.
1.3. The meaning of educational research
 Educational research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the
study of educational problems. Educational research is the way in which people acquire
dependable and useful information about the educative process.
 The ultimate goal is to discover general principles or interpretations of behavior that
people can use to explain, predict, and control events in educational situations—in other
words, to formulate scientific theory.
 Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the
educational process, generally with a view in improving its efficiency. It is an application
of scientific method to the study of educational problems.
Other definitions include:
1. Good. “Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of education.”
2. Munroe. “The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and
develop procedures for use in the field of education.”
3. Mulay. “Any systematic study designed to promote the development of education as a
science can be considered educational research.”
4. Crawford. “Educational research is a systematic and refined technique of thinking,
using special tools in order to obtain a mere adequate solution of a problem.”
5. J. W. Best. “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards
development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such
a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the
most effective methods.”
1.4. The nature of educational research

1. Educational research is directed towards the solution of a problem in the field of

education. It may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation between two
or more variables.

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 2. It emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
3. Educational research usually goes beyond the specific objects, groups or situations
investigated and infer characteristics of a target population from the sample observed.
4. Educational research involves getting new data from primary or firsthand sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.
5. Educational research accepts only what can be verified by observation. Certain
interesting questions do not tend themselves to research procedures.
6. Although research activity may at times be somewhat random and unsystematic, it is
more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous
analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely a blind, shotgun
investigation trying something to see what happens.
7. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached. The researcher
attempts to eliminate personal bias.
8. Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the
problem and how others have investigated.
9. Educational research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Pushing back
the frontiers of ignorance is its goal and originality is frequently the quality of a good
research project.
10. Educational research is based on insight and imagination. It needs the service of man who
looks beyond the present. Educational research requires interdisciplinary approach. It is
related to the study of complex relations about facts.
11. Educational research is not so exact a research as physical science. In the latter we can
control the events but in educational research it is not possible.
12. Educational research has a great field. Educational psychology, educational philosophy,
methodology, class organization and management, child development and other subjects
are the fields of research in education.
1.5. Types/categories research
Generally research is categorized into three types.
1. Basic Research
2. Applied Research
3. Action Research
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 1. Basic research

Basic research is aimed at obtaining empirical data used to formulate and expand theory. Basic
research is not oriented in design or purpose toward the solution of practical problems. This
research is also termed as fundamental and pure research. Its essential aim is to expand the
frontiers of knowledge without regard to practical application. The findings of Basic research
have universal validity.

Basic research is characterized by high quality research designs and sophisticated techniques
involving originality, imagination and inventiveness. Its methodology is rigorous involving
highly structured, intensive and systematic scientific processes. It employs careful sampling
techniques in order to extend the findings beyond the selected sampled groups and draws broad
generalizations or principles leading to development of theories.

2. Applied research

Applied research aims to solve an immediate practical problem. It is research performed in

relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they appear in practice. Through
applied research, educators can often solve their problems at the appropriate level of complexity
— that is, in the classroom teaching–learning situation. Although applied research may solve
some specific question, it may not provide the general knowledge to solve other problems. For
example, an elementary school teacher may study the effect of a new method of teaching
fractions. She or he conducts the research to answer a practical question, not necessarily to make
broad generalizations or to help develop a theory. This classification of research is not always
distinct, however, because there are varying degrees on the basic–applied continuum. Research
along this basic– applied dimension is usually classified on the degree to which the findings are
directly applicable to solving a practical problem. Basic research often has practical benefits in
the long term. For example, advances in the practice of medicine depend on basic research in
biochemistry, microbiology, and genetics. Likewise, progress in educational practice is related to
progress in discovering general laws through basic psychological, educational, and sociological
research.
3. Action research
Action research in education is any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, principals, school
counselors, or other stakeholders in the teaching– learning environment to gather information

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about the ways in which their particular schools operate, the teachers teach, and the students
learn. Its purpose is to provide teacher-researchers with a method for solving everyday problems
in their own settings. The goal of action research in education is to create an inquiry stance
toward teaching where questioning one’s own practice becomes part of the work and of the
teaching culture. Action Research is:-
 A process to improve education by incorporating change and involves educators working
together to improve their own practice.
 Persuasive and authoritative because it is done by and for educators.
 Collaborative and encourages educators working and talking together in empowering
relationships, including educators as integral, participating members of the process.
 Practical and relevant and allows educators direct access to research findings.
 A way to develop critical reflection and open-mindedness.
 A planned, systematic, and cyclical approach to understanding the learning process and
to analyzing educational places of work.
 A justification on one’s teaching practices.
1.6. Ethical issues in research
Research ethics guide researchers conducting any research, educate, and monitor scientists to
ensure a high ethical standard in research. Major ethical requirements of scientific study include
five fundamental ethical principles.
 Minimizing the risk of harm to the participants;
 Securing informed consent from the identified research participants;
 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants;
 Avoiding deceptive practices;
 Offering participants the right to withdraw from the research at will.

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Chapter 2
2. The Research Problem and Preparation of Research Proposal
2.1. The research problem
 A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly
literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding
and deliberate investigation.
 A research problem is a gap in existing knowledge, a contradiction in an established
theory, or a real-world challenge that a researcher aims to address in their
research. It is at the heart of any scientific inquiry, directing the trajectory of an
investigation.
 A research problem introduces readers to a study’s topic and its significance. It
contextualizes a research topic and helps define what the researcher plans to
investigate.
2.2. Defining research problem
Defining a research problem is an important step in any research process and can help outline the
process of your study. It is important to consider the following these steps when aiming to define
a research problem:
1. Identify a general area of interest
As you determine an area of study, consider areas that haven't been explored thoroughly or
present challenges within a particular field. Assess how you might address the area of concern
and whether you can develop a research problem related to this issue. If your research is action-
based or applied, consider contacting those who work in a relevant field to attain feedback about
problems to address. You can also follow up on research that others have already conducted.
Consider these various aspects when choosing an area of interest:

 Contradictions between two or more theoretical perspectives

 Situations or natural relationships that haven't been investigated thoroughly
 Processes in an institution or organization that you and your research team could improve
 Areas of concern raised by individuals who work or are experts in a particular industry

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2. Learn more about the problem

The next step is to learn more about the area of interest. Ask yourself what you need to
know about a particular topic before you begin your study. Assess who or what it might
affect and how your research could address those relationships. Consider whether other
research groups have already tried to solve the problem you're interested in analyzing and
how your approach might differ.

3. Review the context of the information

Reviewing the context of your research involves defining and testing the environmental
variables in your project, which may help you create a clear and focused research
problem. It may also help you note which variables are present in the research and how to
account for the impact that they may have on it. By reviewing the context, you may easily
estimate the amount of data your research is likely to require.

4. Determine relationships between variables

After identifying the variables involved in your research, you can learn how they're
related to one another and how these relationships may contribute to your research
problem. Consider generating as many potential perspectives and variable interactions as
possible. Identifying the relationships between variables may be useful when deciding the
degree to which you can control them in your study and how they might affect potential
solutions to the problem you're addressing.
5. Select and include important variables
A clear and manageable research problem typically includes the variables that are most
relevant to the study. A research team summarizes how they plan to consider and use
these variables and how they might influence the results of the study. Selecting the most
important variables can help the study's audience better understand the trajectory of your
research and the potential impact of the solution.

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 6. Receive feedback and revise

Consider contacting mentors, teachers or industry experts for feedback on your research
problem. They may present you with new information to consider or suggest you edit a
particular aspect of your research design. Revising your research problem can be a
valuable step in creating impactful and precise research, as well as developing
beneficial research skills. However, before asking for feedback, try asking yourself these
guiding questions:
 Does my research problem allow for several solutions and outcomes?
 Am I creating a study that has a testable hypothesis or theory?
 Am I defining all the terms correctly?
 Is my research objective comprehensive?
 Are all parts of my project understandable?
If you answer affirmatively to most or all of these questions, it's likely that you have an effective
research problem and can progress with your study.
2.3. Sources of research problem
Sources of research problems can vary widely depending on the field and context, but some
common sources include:
 Theory of one’s own interest: Observations, experiences, or encounters in one's
professional or personal life that spark curiosity or highlight an issue worthy of
investigation.
 Practical Problems: Real-world challenges, needs, or issues faced by individuals,
organizations, or communities that require research-based solutions.
 Theoretical Frameworks: The application or extension of theoretical models, frameworks,
or paradigms to new contexts or phenomena.
 Social and Cultural Context: Issues arising from societal, cultural, economic, or political
dynamics that prompt questions or inquiries.
 Technological changes: Emerging technologies or innovations that raise new questions or
create opportunities for research.
 Discussions with experts and authorities including the supervisor or research advisor
 Policy Needs: Requirements or gaps in policies, regulations, or practices that necessitate
research to inform decision-making

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2.4. The research proposal
 Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you
plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification),
and how you plan to investigate it (your methodology).
 The purpose of the research proposal is to convince your research supervisor, committee
or university that your research is suitable and manageable (given the time and resource
constraints you will face).
 The most important word here is “convince” – in other words, your research proposal
needs to sell your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince
them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit.
2.5. Characteristics of a research proposal
Research proposal has the following important characteristics/features:
1. Adequate background information: Have sufficient information to convince your
readers that you have an important research idea.
2. Clear Research problem: Justifies the need to carry out the study.
3. Relevant Literature: Show good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues
4. Adequate Resources: Show that that you have the competence, work-plan and
resources to complete it.
5. Achievable objectives: Proposal must state what you plan to accomplish, why you
want to do it and how you are going to do it.
6. Continuity among sections of the proposal: Show continuity among proposal sections;
objectives must logically conclude the introduction and justification
7. Clear objectives: Objectives must be few, clearly stated and lead to well worded
hypotheses
8. Testable hypothesis: Hypotheses must be stated such that treatment selection and
important measures are obvious
9. Clear methodology: Methodology must be related to the objectives and individual
working hypotheses: methodology should clearly show how each objective will be
achieved.
10. Written properly: Quality of your proposal writing matters. Your writing should be
coherent, clear and compelling

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2.6. Components of a research proposal
Research proposals differ in terms of their presentation depending on what each University
department/ or funder requires. However, research proposals in general constitute the
following components.

1. Title
The title should:
 Reflect the theme of the research
 Be self-explanatory
 Be brief
 Be simple and unambiguous
 Be specific to a particular domain
2. Introduction
 Theoretical background
 Background of the problem
3. Statement of the problem
 Definition
 Nature
 Extent
4. Objectives of the research
 Contextual/consistent to the title
 Concise, clear-cut, expressed in simple language, precise, self-explanatory
 Distinctive, quantifiable , measurable
 Two types of objectives : general/broad/overall; specific
5. Hypothesis/research questions
 Proposition subject to verification
 May be null, accepted, rejected
 Guide/lead the research
6. Rationale/justification/significance of the research
 Importance
 Addressing the national context problem
 Bridging the knowledge gaps
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  Useful to the society/community
 Present state of affairs
 Affected stakeholders
7. Scope and limitations of the study
 Boundaries of the research
 Aspects and issues addressed
 Shortcomings of the research – resource and time constraints
8. Operational definitions of terms used
 Clear-cut meaning of the terms used
9. Review of literature
 Researches so conducted; vital information
 Issues discussed; unaddressed issues
 Relevancy to the present research
 Finding out information/knowledge gaps
10. Methodology Used
 Selection of appropriate approach
 Tools/techniques to be used
 Data collection techniques
 Data processing, analysis, interpretation techniques
 Data/information presentation techniques
11. Time schedule/work plan
 Time line of the assigned tasks
12. Budget/estimated cost built up
 Cost built up – resource personnel, support staff, stationery, transport, utilities,
house rents, miscellaneous, etc
13. Bibliography/References
 Related documents to be consulted/studies
 Follow technicalities in writing bibliography/references
 To be presented in alphabetic order
 To be presented in classified manner viz., manuscripts, books, journals,
commission reports, newspapers, etc

Chapter 3

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Review of Related Literature

A literature review is a critical examination and assessment of previous research on a certain

topic. It is an important component of academic research since it summarizes the present state of
knowledge in a certain subject, identifies gaps in the literature, and helps to direct future study.
3.1. The Purpose of Literature Review.
 The purpose of a literature review is to gain an understanding of the existing research and
debates relevant to a particular topic or area of study, and to present that knowledge in
the form of a written report.
 Conducting a literature review helps you build your knowledge in your field.
 You’ll learn about important concepts, research methods, and experimental techniques
that are used in your field.
 Another great benefit of literature reviews is that as you read, you’ll get a better
understanding of how research findings are presented and discussed in your particular
discipline.
 If you pay attention to what you read and try to achieve a similar style, you’ll become
more successful at writing for your discipline.
Specifically, the purpose of a literature review is to:

 Provide a foundation of knowledge on a topic

 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other
researchers
 Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions left
from other research
 Identify the need for additional research (justifying your research)
 Identify the relationship of works in the context of their contribution to the topic and
other works
 Place your own research within the context of existing literature, making a case for why
further study is needed.

3.2. Literature Review Sources

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A literature review is constructed using information from existing legitimate sources of
knowledge. The following are a few acceptable sources for literature reviews, listed in order
from what will be considered most acceptable to less acceptable sources for your literature
review:
1. Peer reviewed journal articles.
2. Edited academic books.
3. Articles in professional journals.
4. Statistical data from government websites.
5. Website material from professional associations (use sparingly and carefully).

1. Peer Reviewed Journal Articles (Papers)

 A peer reviewed journal article is a paper that has been submitted to a scholarly journal,
accepted, and published. Peer review journal papers go through a rigorous, blind review
process of peer review. What this means is that two to three experts in the area of
research featured in the paper have reviewed and accepted the paper for publication.
2. Edited Academic Books
 An edited academic book is a collection of scholarly scientific papers written by different
authors.
3. Articles in Professional Journals
 Articles from professional journals should be used with caution for your literature review.
This is because articles in trade journals are not usually peer reviewed, even though they
may appear to be.
4. Statistical Data from Governmental Websites
 Governmental websites can be excellent sources for statistical data
5. Website Material from Professional Associations
6. Material from other websites can also serve as a source for statistics that you may need
for your literature review.

3.3. Conducting a Literature Search.

A literature search is a systematic search for published data to identify relevant references on a
specific topic. It is a critical component for any evidence-based project. An effective search of

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the literature can be done quickly, but demands an organized and systematic approach, so it is
important to keep records of the searches made and the information found.
To conduct a literature search, you can follow these steps:

 Define your research question(s)

 Choose a database to use to carry out your search
 Design your search strategy/ keywords according to the resource being used.
 Conduct your search, evaluate results.
 Refine search strategy and repeat as necessary.
 Keep a record of your searches.
3.4. Ways of writing the Literature Review.
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of
current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing
research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic.
How to write a literature review
Step 1 - Search for relevant literature

The first step to writing a literature review is looking for your sources. When doing so it is best
practice to think about the types of literature that are leading the research in your field of study
and the materials that are the most up to date.

Examples of literature sources include:

 Peer reviewed journals
 Reports
 Academic books
 Government documents

Step 2 – Evaluate your sources

After gathering your sources, you need to evaluate the information you have found. Firstly, to
ensure that your sources are fit for purpose you must look at their credibility and what they offer
to your field of study. Once you have decided a source is trustworthy you can then take a closer
look at the information offered.

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Some questions to consider when evaluating sources are:

 Is this source trustworthy and credible?

 Is this source relevant to my field of study?
 What are the key terms and concepts?
 Are there any gaps for further study?

Step 3 - Determine the themes, debates, and gaps

Your literature review must present a critical analysis of a chosen subject area. Therefore, you
must determine the themes and debates whilst also accounting for areas of further study.

Reading through your sources will help you to piece together common themes and ideas. An
example of how to assemble your sources would be to write brief paragraphs about how each
relates to your overall theme and how they can work together. This should also present to you the
areas which require further study. By doing so you should be able to determine your key themes
and debates, helping to outline your structure.

Step 4 - Outline the structure

The structure of your literature review is important. You want to make sure that your themes and
debates are laid out concisely so that you can present a balanced and well-thought-out
discussion.
When deciding on the structure it is important to consider the following questions:

 What do you want the reader to take away from your literature review?
 How can you organize your sources concisely?
Step 5 - Write your literature review

Now that you better understand what a literature review is, it is time to begin writing. A literature
review format is split into three sections: introduction, main body and conclusion - not forgetting
a list of correctly cited references at the very end.

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 Chapter 4
Sampling and Data Collection Methods
4.1. The concept of sampling.
 Sampling is a process in statistical analysis in which researchers take a
predetermined number of observations from a larger population.

 It allows researchers to conduct studies about a large group by using a small portion
of the population.

 Sampling is a fundamental technique in research that involves selecting a smaller

group, or sample, from a larger population to represent the whole.

 Sampling refers to the structured approach of selecting participants or data points from a
population that is representative of the whole.

It is essential research methodology because it’s often impractical to study the entire
population due to constraints like time, cost, and resources.

 Proper sampling techniques ensure that the results of the research can be generalized to
the broader population, making sampling a cornerstone of scientific research.

 Sampling is the process of selecting a part of a population to estimate the characteristics

of the whole population.

4.2. Defining the population and sample

 A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

 A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample
is always less than the total size of the population.

 In research, a population doesn’t always refer to people. It can mean a group

containing elements of anything you want to study, such as objects, events,
organizations, countries, species, organisms, etc.

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  The research population, also known as the target population, refers to the entire
group or set of individuals, objects, or events that possess specific characteristics and
are of interest to the researcher. It represents the larger population from which a
sample is drawn. The research population is defined based on the research objectives
and the specific parameters or attributes under investigation. For example, in a study
on the effects of a new drug, the research population would encompass all individuals
who could potentially benefit from or be affected by the medication.

 A sample is a subset of the research population that is carefully selected to represent

its characteristics. Researchers study this smaller, manageable group to draw
inferences that they can generalize to the larger population. The selection of the
sample must be conducted in a manner that ensures it accurately reflects the diversity
and pertinent attributes of the research population. By studying a sample, researchers
can gather data more efficiently and cost-effectively compared to studying the entire
population. The findings from the sample are then extrapolated to make conclusions
about the larger research population.

4.3. Characteristics of a good sampling design

Sample design is a crucial aspect of conducting high-quality research. It involves selecting a

representative subset of the population to participate in the research project. The following are
some of the characteristics of a good sample design.
1. Representative Sample
A good sample design should ensure that the sample is representative of the population. The
sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the population, such as age, gender,
income, and education. A representative sample ensures that the research findings are
generalizable to the population.
2. Adequate Sample Size
A good sample design should have an adequate sample size to ensure that the research findings
are reliable and accurate. The sample size should be large enough to minimize the risk of
sampling error and ensure that the research findings are generalizable to the population.

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3. Random Sampling
Random sampling is a crucial aspect of a good sample design. Random sampling ensures that
every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Random
sampling reduces the risk of sampling bias and ensures that the research findings are
generalizable to the population.
4. Sampling Frame
A good sample design should have a well-designed sampling frame. The sampling frame is a list
of individuals or units in the population. The sampling frame should be complete, up-to-date, and
accurate. A well-designed sampling frame ensures that the sample is representative of the
population.
5. Appropriate Sampling Technique
A good sample design should use appropriate sampling techniques that are relevant to the
research question and objectives. The sampling technique should be appropriate for the
population, sample size, and research methodology. Appropriate sampling techniques, such as
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, or simple random sampling, ensure that the research
findings are reliable and accurate.
4.4. Types of sampling.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from
every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals
who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a
sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called a sampling method. There
are two primary types of sampling methods that you can use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

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Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice. There are four
main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random sampling: You want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic sampling: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with
a sample of 100 people.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.

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To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on
the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified sampling: The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example: Cluster sampling: A company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to
every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

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This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That
means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample
is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience sampling: You are researching opinions about student support services in
your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response sampling: You send out the survey to all students at your
university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight

22
into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong
opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling

This type of sampling, also known as judgment sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive sampling: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.

4. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball sampling: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.
Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You
meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
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Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit
sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up
your sample.

Example: Quota sampling: You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians,
and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all
consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these groups.
You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.

4.5. Sampling errors and sampling bias.

Sampling error and sampling bias affect sample accuracy and representativeness in statistics.
Sampling error occurs because a sample is a subset of the population and may not precisely
represent it. Instead, sampling bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the
population. This may happen if the method used to choose the sample favors or excludes
particular sorts of people, resulting in an overrepresentation or underrepresentation of particular
groups.

Sampling bias occurs when members of the intended population are selected incorrectly-either
because they have a lower or a higher chance of being selected.

What is a sampling error?

A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study does not represent the entire
population. Although sampling errors occur frequently, researchers always include a margin of
error in their conclusions as a matter of statistical practice.

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The margin of error is the amount allowed for a miscalculation to represent the difference
between the sample and the actual population.

Sampling is a type of analysis where a small sample of observations is chosen from a larger
population. The selection bias process can produce both sampling errors and non-sampling
errors. Selection bias refers to experimental mistakes that lead to an inaccurate representation of
your research sample. It arises when the participant pool or data does not represent the target
group.

Using stratified or random sampling and unbiased, population-representative sample selection

can reduce sampling bias. On the other hand, sampling error can be reduced by using the proper
sampling methods and making the sample size bigger.

Steps to reduce sampling errors

Increase sample size: A larger sample size is more accurate because the study gets closer to the
actual population size.

Divide the population into groups: Test groups according to their size in the population instead
of a random sample. For example, if people of a specific demographic make up 20% of the
population, make sure that your study is made up of this variable to reduce sampling bias.
Know your population: Study your population and understand its demographic mix. Know what
demographics use your product and service and ensure you only target the sample that matters.

4.6. Sampling errors and sampling bias

 Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of taking a
sample from a population rather than using the whole population. A sampling error
occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the whole population.
 The spreading of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the sample size. As the
sample size increases, the sample gets closer to the actual population, which decreases
the potential for deviations from the actual population.
There are different categories of sampling errors.

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1- Population- specific error= Population- specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't
understand who to survey.
2- Selection error= Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those
participants who are interested in the survey respond to the questions. Researchers can
attempt to overcome selection error by finding ways to encourage participation.
3- Sample frame error= A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the
wrong population data.
4- Non-response error= Non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from
the surveys.
 Sampling bias- Sampling bias refers to the systematic error introduced in a study due to
a poorly designed sampling plan, leading to non-response and the inclusion of units with
different characteristics compared to the rest of the sample.
 Sampling bias results in biased samples of a population where all individuals were not
equally likely to have been selected and thus do not accurately represent the entire group.
 Sampling bias is problematic because it leaves out important research data, threatening
external validity. The results from research completed with a sampling bias are
misleading and exclude valuable data.
 This limits the generalizability of your findings because findings from biased samples
can only be generalized to populations that share characteristics with the sample. Thus
the results from the research cannot be used to express the ideas and thoughts of the
majority.

4.7. Sample size determination

 ‘Sample size’ is a term used to define the number of individuals included in research.
Researchers choose their sample based on demographics, such as age, gender, or physical
location.
 Sample size determination is choosing the correct number of observations or people from
a larger group to use in a sample. The goal of figuring out the sample size is to ensure
that the sample is big enough to give statistically valid results and accurate estimates of
population parameters but small enough to be manageable and cost-effective.
 Choosing a statistically significant sample size depends on a number of things, such as
the size of the population, how precise you want your estimates to be, how confident you
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 want to be in the results, how different the population is likely to be, and how much
money and time you have for the study. Statistics are often used to determine a sample
size for a certain type of study and research question.

4.8. Data gathering tools

There are different data gathering tools to be used by researchers.
4.7.1 Questionnaires: These are designed to collect and record information from many
people, groups or organizations in a consistent way. A questionnaire is a form
containing questions. It may be a printed form or one designed to be filled in online.
Questionnaires may be administered in many different ways.
4.7.2 Interviews: Interviews are a data collection method by which one person asks a series
of questions to another who is part of the target audience. The one-to-one interview can
be conducted in person or over the phone call or through Skype.
4.7.3 Focus group discussions: Focus group discussions (FGDs) are facilitated discussions,
held with a small group of people who have specialist knowledge or interest in a
particular topic. They are used to find out the perceptions and attitudes of a defined
group of people. FGDs are typically carried out with around 6-12 people, and are based
around a short list of guiding questions, designed to probe for in-depth information.
4.7.4 Observation: At its most simple, observation involves ‘seeing’ things – such as objects,
processes, relationships, events – and formally recording the information. There are
different types of observation. Structured or direct observation is a process in which
observations are recorded against an agreed checklist. Expert observation is usually
carried out by someone with specific expertise in an area of work, and involves the
expert observing and recording information on a subject. Observation may also be
carried out as a participatory exercise. Where this is the case the intended beneficiaries
of a project or program are involved in planning an observation exercise, observing, and
discussing findings.
4.7.5 Document analysis: This method involves finding and reviewing documents ranging
from letters of complaint, industry reports, policy documents or more strategic ones, to
better understand the problem.
4.7.6 Tests and inventories.
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Standardized tests: Pre-designed assessments to measure specific skills or
knowledge levels across a population, providing quantitative data on student
achievement.
In educational research standardized tests are assessments that are used to measure
student performance and school effectiveness.
Types of standardized tests
 Achievement tests: Measure knowledge in a specific curriculum or subject or
field to gauge/measure student progress.
 Aptitude tests: Measure a person's ability to learn new skills.
 Intelligence tests: Measure intellectual functioning, problem-solving, and
cognitive abilities.
 Personality tests: Measure a person's personality traits, emotional state, and
psychological well-being.
Inventory: In research, an "inventory" functions as a data collection tool by acting as a
structured questionnaire or checklist, designed to systematically gather detailed
information about specific characteristics, behaviors, or attributes of individuals or
situations, often through self-reported responses, allowing researchers to
comprehensively assess a particular area of interest within a study population. It is a
method to systematically record and quantify existing conditions or elements within a
defined area or group.
Inventories are self-reporting assessment tools that examine one or more characteristics
of an individual's behaviour. It can be of many types such as interest inventory,
personality inventory etc.

In educational research, an "inventory" refers to a type of assessment tool, usually a

questionnaire or checklist, designed to systematically gather data on a specific set of
characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors related to a particular aspect of learning,
often used to identify common misconceptions or pinpoint areas where students need
additional support, particularly within a specific subject area like science or
mathematics; a prominent example is the "concept inventory" which measures students'
understanding of key concepts by identifying potential misconceptions they might hold.

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 In educational institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities, inventory
management covers all things used by staff and students. Educational institution
inventory includes movable assets such as seats, desks, blackboards, projectors, library
assets, and books.

Chapter 5
Research Designs
 A research design is a plan for answering research questions using data. It outlines the
methods for collecting and analyzing data, and the theories and models that support the
research. There are three different types of research design/methodology you can select
based on the nature of the study. Sanders et al. (2019) categorized research designs into
three types: (i) quantitative research design; (ii) qualitative research design; and (iii)
mixed methods research design.
5.1 Quantitative Research Designs
 Quantitative research is the fruit of the natural sciences. It is termed the traditional, the
positivist, the experimental, or the empiricist paradigm.
 The main assumption of the quantitative research approach is that the design of the
research should follow the positivist model, whereas the researcher must control his
variables and testing pre-specified hypotheses

The main assumptions of the quantitative paradigm are summarized in the following points:

 In quantitative research, reality is objective and singular, independent of the researcher;

 There is an independent relationship between the researcher and that being researched;
 The researcher’s values must be kept out of the study to ensure it is value-free and
unbiased;
 Formal language must be used in conducting the research;
 Data must be in the form of numbers from precise measurements;
 It is deductive in nature, wherein theories and hypotheses are tested in a cause and effect
order;
 The main intent is to develop generalization that can better predict, explain, and therefore
understand better the studied phenomenon;
 Be context-free;
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  The study’s accurate and reliable conditions can be achieved through validity and
reliability tests;
 Analysis of data is usually done using statistics, tables, or charts.
 There are several types of research designs. Some of the common types of quantitative
research design include; survey design, correlational design, experimental design, and
Causal-Comparative/Quasi Experimental design.
5.1.1 Survey Research
 Survey Research is a quantitative research method used for collecting data from a set
of respondents. It has been perhaps one of the most used methodologies in the
industry for several years due to the multiple benefits and advantages that it has when
collecting and analyzing data.
 Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that
researchers send to survey respondents. The data collected from surveys is then
statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research conclusions.
 It aims to identify distributions of societal characteristics and make inferences about
larger groups or populations.
 Survey research involves the collection of primary data from all or part of a
population, to determine the incidence, distribution, and interrelationships of certain
variables within the population.
 In survey research, independent and dependent variables are used to define the scope
of study, but cannot be explicitly controlled by the researcher. Before conducting the
survey, the researcher must predicate a model that identifies the expected
relationships among these variables. The survey is then constructed to test this model
against observations of the phenomena.
 Surveys gather data that describe and explain population or sample characteristics,
behaviors, attitudes or opinions and may be used to predict future behavior. They
utilize a variety of data collection techniques, including questionnaires (print or
online), interviews (face-to-face or telephone), and observation techniques.
5.1.2 Correlational Research

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  Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research method in which a
researcher measures two variables and understands and assesses the statistical
relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.

 A correlational research design investigates relationships between variables without the

researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. A correlation reflects the strength
and/or direction of the relationship between two (or more) variables. The direction of a
correlation can be either positive or negative.

Positive correlation Both variables change in As height increases, weight also increases
the same direction

Negative correlation The variables change in As coffee consumption increases, tiredness decreases
opposite directions

Zero correlation There is no relationship Coffee consumption is not correlated with height
between the variables

5.1.3 Causal–Comparative Research

 Causal comparative research is a type of research method where the researcher tries to
find out if there is a causal effect relationship between dependent and independent
variables. In other words, the researcher using this method wants to know whether one
thing changing affects another thing, and if so, why.

 The researcher can look at previous events and try to draw conclusions and cause-and-
effect relationships. But of course, there may be some times when it is not possible to do
so. Then, they can collect information about a group of participants and observe the
changes in the long run.

Mainly, causal-comparative research design is divided into two groups. These research
designs are:

1. Retrospective comparative research

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Retrospective comparative study is about the study and comparison of the existing data to know
more about the relations, patterns, or outcomes of past events and historical periods. In this
study approach, the scientists collect data on past events and try to find results and create
patterns. This method is mainly used when it is impossible to do a prospective comparative
study. The reasons for limitation can be practical, ethical, or logistical reasons.

2. Prospective comparative research

The prospective comparative study is about collecting information from a group of participants
over a long period. Afterward, the scientists make some predictions about the future. Then,
researchers follow the participants and observe the changes, outcomes, or developments. The
main goal of this study is to see how the conditions in the beginning change and affect each
other.

5.1.4 Experimental Research

 Experimental research is a systematic and scientific approach in which the researcher
manipulates one or more independent variables and observes the effect on a dependent
variable while controlling for extraneous variables. This method allows for the
establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
 Experimental research involves using control groups, random assignment, and
standardized procedures to ensure the reliability and validity of the results. It is
commonly used in psychology, medicine, and the social sciences to test hypotheses and
theories under controlled conditions.

What Are The Different Types of Experimental Research?

The following are the different types of experimental research:

Pre-Experimental Research

 One-Shot Case Study: A single group is exposed to a treatment and then observed for
outcomes. There is no control group for comparison.

 One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design: A single group is measured before and after

treatment to observe changes.

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True Experimental Research

 Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT): Participants are randomly assigned to

experimental and control groups to ensure comparability and reduce bias. This design is
considered the gold standard in experimental research.

 Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: Both the experimental and control groups are
measured before and after the treatment. The experimental group receives the treatment,
while the control group does not.

 Posttest-Only Control Group Design: Participants are randomly assigned to experimental

and control groups, but measurements are taken only after the treatment is administered
to the experimental group.

Quasi-Experimental Research

 Non-Equivalent Groups Design: Similar to the pretest-posttest control group design,

participants are not randomly assigned to groups. This design is often used when random
assignment is not feasible.

 Interrupted Time Series Design: Multiple measurements are taken before and after a
treatment to observe changes over time. This design helps control time-related variables.

 Matched Groups Design: Participants are matched based on certain characteristics before
being assigned to experimental and control groups, ensuring comparable groups.
Factorial Design
 Full Factorial Design: Involves manipulating two or more independent variables
simultaneously to observe their interaction effects on the dependent variable. All possible
combinations of the independent variables are tested.

 Fractional Factorial Design: A subset of the possible combinations of independent

variables is tested, making it more practical when dealing with many variables.

5.2 Qualitative Research designs

 A qualitative approach is termed the phenomenology, constructivist, naturalistic,
interpretative, post-positivist, or postmodern paradigm.
 Qualitative methods permit the evaluator to study selected issues in depth and detail.
Approaching fieldwork without being constrained by predetermined categories of
analysis contributes to the depth, openness, and detail of qualitative inquiry.

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  The main interest of the qualitative method is to understand the studied phenomenon
rather than to measure them.

Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes words rather than quantification in the
collection and analysis of data; it further seeks to explore and understand the meaning of
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Dangal, 2021). Hennink, Hutter and
Bailey (2020) further argue that "one of the main distinctive features of a qualitative research is
that the approach allows the researcher to identify issues from the perspective of [the]
participants, [and the researcher should also] understand the meaning and interpretations that
they give to behaviour, events, and objects". ...

The main assumptions of the qualitative paradigm are summarized in the following points:

 In qualitative research, reality is subjective and multiple as seen by the different parts of
the study;
 There is a direct interaction between the researcher and that being researched;
 Researcher’s values may affect the study;
 Informal language used in conducting the research;
 Data in the form of words and images from documents, observations, and transcripts;
 It is inductive in nature wherein the main focus is on generation of theory;
 Lack of generalization;
 It provides rich context-bound;
 The study’s accurate and reliable conditions can be achieved through verifications;
 Analysis usually done by extracting themes.

There are common types of qualitative research designs. They include: narrative research
ethnographic, and case study, etc..

5.2.1 Narrative Research

 Narrative research centers on the collection of stories shared by individuals. It aims to
understand how people construct and make sense of their experiences through
storytelling. It’s similar to phenomenological research approaches, in that it emphasizes
the subjective experience of individuals, but differs in where it places the emphasis.
Narrative research focuses on the stories people use to make sense of their experiences,

34
 whereas phenomenological research is focused on better understanding the experiences
themselves.
 Researchers explore a few participants' experiences by collecting information on their
attitudes, beliefs and behaviors during specific situations. This method allows researchers
to gather data from several sources at one time to identify themes or patterns. The
narrative research method involves collecting stories from participants to share later. This
process involves asking questions like:
 What was happening?
 How did it feel?
 Why was this important?
 What did you do next?

5.2.2. Ethnographic Research

 Ethnography can be defined as “the systematic process of observing, detailing,

describing, documenting, and analyzing the life ways or particular patterns of a culture
(or subculture) in order to grasp the life ways or patterns of the people in their familiar
environment.
 In ethnographic research, the researcher frequently lives with the people and becomes a
part of their culture. The researcher explores with the people their rituals and customs. An
entire cultural group may be studied or a subgroup in the culture.
 Ethnographers interview people who are most knowledgeable about the culture. These
people are called key informants. Data are generally collected through participant
observation and interviews.
 Researchers make explicit their own personal biases and beliefs, set them aside, and then
try to understand the daily lives of individuals as they live them. Data collection and
analysis occur simultaneously. As understanding of the data occurs, new questions
emerge. The end purpose of ethnography is the development of cultural theories.

5.2.3. Case Study Research

 Case studies are in-depth examinations of people or groups of people. A case study could
also examine an institution, such as hospice care for the dying. The case method has its

35
 roots in sociology and has also been used a great deal in anthropology, law, and
medicine.
 A case study may be considered as quantitative or qualitative research depending on the
purpose of the study and the design chosen by the researcher. As is true of other types of
qualitative studies, for a case study to be considered as a qualitative study, the researcher
must be interested in the meaning of experiences to the subjects themselves, rather than
in generalizing results to other groups of people. Case studies are not used to test
hypotheses, but hypotheses may be generated from case studies.
 Data may be collected in case studies through various means such as questionnaires,
interviews, observations, or written accounts by the subjects. A nurse researcher for
example, might be interested in how people with diabetes respond to an insulin pump.
One person or a group of people with diabetes could be studied for a time to determine
their responses to the use of an insulin pump. Diaries might be used for the day-to-day
recording of information. The nurse researcher would then analyze these diaries and try
to interpret the written comments.
5.3 Mixed Methods Research

Mixed methods research is a popular method for researching today, allowing for a deeper
exploration of a research question by utilizing a blend of qualitative and quantitative data.

By blending both quantitative and qualitative data, mixed methods research allows for a more
thorough exploration of a research question. It can answer complex research queries that cannot
be solved with either qualitative or quantitative research.

What is mixed methods research?

Mixed methods research combines the elements of two types of research: quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative data is collected through the use of surveys and experiments, for
example, containing numerical measures such as ages, scores, and percentages.

Qualitative data involves non-numerical measures like beliefs, motivations, attitudes, and
experiences, often derived through interviews and focus group research to gain a deeper
understanding of a research question or phenomenon. Mixed methods research is often used in

36
the behavioral, health, and social sciences, as it allows for the collection of numerical and non-
numerical data.

When to use mixed methods research

Mixed methods research is a great choice when quantitative or qualitative data alone will not
sufficiently answer a research question. By collecting and analyzing both quantitative and
qualitative data in the same study, you can draw more meaningful conclusions.

There are several reasons why mixed methods research can be beneficial, including
generalizability, contextualization, and credibility.

For example, let's say you are conducting a survey about consumer preferences for a certain
product. You could collect only quantitative data, such as how many people prefer each product
and their demographics. Or you could supplement your quantitative data with qualitative data,
such as interviews and focus groups, to get a better sense of why people prefer one product over
another.

It is important to note that mixed methods research does not only mean collecting both types of
data. Rather, it also requires carefully considering the relationship between the two and method
flexibility.

You may find differing or even conflicting results by combining quantitative and qualitative
data. It is up to the researcher to then carefully analyze the results and consider them in the
context of the research question to draw meaningful conclusions.

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 Chapter 6
Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
a. Quantitative data analysis and Interpretation
 Quantitative data analysis is the process of using statistical methods to interpret and
extract meaningful insights from numerical data, allowing you to identify patterns,
trends, and relationships between variables by applying mathematical calculations to
large datasets, ultimately enabling informed decision-making based on quantifiable
results.

Key points about quantitative data analysis:

 Focus on numbers: It involves analyzing data that is presented in numerical form, like
numbers from surveys, experiments, or financial records.
 Statistical techniques: To analyze this data, various statistical methods are used like
descriptive statistics (mean, median, and mode) and inferential statistics (hypothesis
testing, regression analysis).
 Identifying patterns and trends: The goal is to discover patterns, trends, and
relationships between variables within the data set.
 Applications: This analysis is widely used across various fields like business,
healthcare, social sciences, and market research to make data-driven decisions.
i. Descriptive Statistics
 Descriptive statistics refers to a set of methods used to summarize and describe the main
features of a dataset, such as its central tendency, variability, and distribution. These
methods provide an overview of the data and help identify patterns and relationships.

 Descriptive statistics summarize and organize characteristics of a data set. A data set is a
collection of responses or observations from a sample or entire population.

 In quantitative research, after collecting data, the first step of statistical analysis is to
describe characteristics of the responses, such as the average of one variable (e.g., age),
or the relation between two variables (e.g., age and creativity).

38
  The aim of descriptive statistics is to summarize categorical and numerical data in an
informative way, both numerically and graphically. Descriptive statistics are used to help
describe key features or characteristics of data, such as the shape of their distribution,
where the center lies, and how the data vary about that center. Ideally, a collection
of descriptive statistics is chosen to convey the data's salient features in a more concise,
but just as effective, manner as reporting each individual value.

ii. Inferential Statistics

 Inferential statistics is used to draw conclusions and make inferences after analyzing data
collected in surveys. Inferential statistics include hypothesis tests and estimation to make
comparisons and predictions and draw conclusions that will serve populations based
on sample data.

 While descriptive statistics summarize the characteristics of a data set, inferential

statistics help you come to conclusions and make predictions based on your data.

 When you have collected data from a sample, you can use inferential statistics to
understand the larger population from which the sample is taken.
Inferential statistics have two main uses:

 Making estimates about populations (for example, the mean SAT score of all 11th
graders in the US).
 Testing hypotheses to draw conclusions about populations (for example, the relationship
between SAT scores and family income).

Descriptive versus inferential statistics

Descriptive statistics allow you to describe a data set, while inferential statistics allow you to
make inferences based on a data set.

Descriptive statistics

Using descriptive statistics, you can report characteristics of your data:

 The distribution concerns the frequency of each value.

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  The central tendency concerns the averages of the values.
 The variability concerns how spread out the values are.

In descriptive statistics, there is no uncertainty – the statistics precisely describe the data that you
collected. If you collect data from an entire population, you can directly compare these
descriptive statistics to those from other populations.

Example: Descriptive statistics

You collect data on the SAT scores of all 11th graders in a school for three years.
You can use descriptive statistics to get a quick overview of the school’s scores in those years.
You can then directly compare the mean SAT score with the mean scores of other schools.

Inferential statistics
Most of the time, you can only acquire data from samples, because it is too difficult or expensive
to collect data from the whole population that you’re interested in.

While descriptive statistics can only summarize a sample’s characteristics, inferential statistics
use your sample to make reasonable guesses about the larger population.

With inferential statistics, it’s important to use random and unbiased sampling methods. If your
sample isn’t representative of your population, then you can’t make valid statistical inferences
or generalize.

iii. Software for analyzing quantitative data

Some of the most common software programs used to analyze quantitative data include: SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), SAS (Statistical Analysis System), Stata, Excel, R,
JMP, and MATLAB, with SPSS often considered the most user-friendly option for beginners
and survey analysis due to its intuitive interface and comprehensive features.

Key points about each software:

SPSS: Widely used for its user-friendly interface, well-suited for survey data analysis, and
offers a variety of statistical tests like regressions and ANOVAs.

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SAS: Powerful statistical analysis tool with advanced capabilities, often used in research and
business settings

Stata: Strong for econometric analysis, time-series data, and panel data analysis

Excel: Basic data analysis features like descriptive statistics, pivot tables, and trend analysis,
good for quick data exploration.

R: Open-source programming language with extensive statistical capabilities, preferred by

advanced users for customization and flexibility.

JMP: Visual data exploration tool with interactive graphs and statistical modeling features.

MATLAB: Primarily used for scientific computing and data visualization, with strong
capabilities for advanced analysis.

b. Qualitative data Analysis and Interpretation

Qualitative data analysis and interpretation refers to the process of organizing, examining, and
making sense of non-numerical data like interview transcripts, focus group discussions, or open-
ended survey responses, to uncover patterns, themes, and meanings within the data, allowing
researchers to gain a deeper understanding of people's experiences, perspectives, and motivations
on a topic; often involving methods like thematic analysis, content analysis, narrative analysis, or
grounded theory analysis to identify recurring concepts and insights from the data.

Key points about qualitative data analysis and interpretation:

Focus on meaning: Unlike quantitative analysis, which focuses on numbers, qualitative

analysis aims to understand the underlying meaning and context of data.

Inductive approach: Often, researchers start with open-ended questions and allow themes to
emerge from the data rather than imposing pre-defined categories.

Coding and categorization: Researchers assign codes to different parts of the data to identify
recurring patterns and themes.

Iterative process: Analysis is often an iterative process, where researchers revisit data and
refine their interpretations as they uncover new insights.
Common methods for qualitative data analysis:
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Thematic analysis: A widely used method where researchers identify recurring themes across
the data set by systematically coding and analyzing the information.

Content analysis: Analyzes the frequency and context of specific words, phrases, or concepts
within a text to identify patterns and themes

Narrative analysis: Focuses on interpreting the stories and personal narratives participants
share to understand their experiences and perspectives.

Grounded theory: An inductive approach where researchers develop a theory from the data by
constantly comparing new information to existing categories and refining their understanding
as they collect more data

Discourse analysis: Examines how language is used within a specific context to understand the
social and power dynamics at play.
Software for analyzing qualitative data

Some popular software options for analyzing qualitative data include: NVivo, ATLAS.ti,
MAXQDA, Dedoose, QDA Miner, and QualCoder, all of which are designed to help researchers
identify patterns and connections within unstructured data like interviews, documents, and
multimedia files through coding and analysis features.

Key points about these software options:

NVivo: Considered a leading qualitative data analysis software, capable of handling various
data types including documents, audio, video, and images.

ATLAS.ti: Provides a user-friendly interface to reveal relationships and meanings within data,
allowing researchers to gain rich insights

MAXQDA: Offers a wide range of analysis methods like grounded theory, content analysis,
discourse analysis, and mixed methods, with a user-friendly interface

Dedoose: A cloud-based platform suitable for analyzing qualitative data from diverse sources,
including mixed-methods research

QDA Miner: Combines powerful analysis features with an intuitive interface, allowing for
coding, content analysis, and sentiment analysis of text, images, PDFs, and Excel spreadsheets.

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Qual Coder: An open-source option for qualitative data analysis with features similar to paid
software.

Chapter 7
The Research Report
 Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after
analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the
form of surveys or qualitative methods. A research report is a reliable source to recount
details about a conducted research.
 A research report is a document that summarizes and analyzes the findings of a research
project. It's often considered an objective and accurate source of information.

Purpose

 To communicate the findings of research studies to a wider audience

 To provide a first-hand account of the research process, data, and findings
7.1. Research report format
A research report typically includes the following sections:

A typical research report usually includes the following parts: Title page, Abstract, Introduction,
Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References.

Explanation of each part:

Title Page:
 Contains the title of the research, author(s) name, and affiliation.
Abstract:
 A concise summary of the entire research, including the purpose, methods, key
findings, and conclusions.
Introduction:
 Provides background information on the research topic, explains the rationale for the
study, states the research questions or hypotheses, and defines key terms.
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Literature Review:
 Summarizes existing research related to the topic, highlighting key findings and
identifying gaps in knowledge that the current study aims to address.

Methods:
 Describes the research design, participants, data collection procedures, and data
analysis techniques used.
Results:
 Presents the findings of the study, including descriptive statistics and key results from
data analysis, often supported by tables and figures.
Discussion:
 Interprets the findings in relation to the literature review, discusses limitations of the
study, and draws conclusions based on the results.
Conclusion:
 A summary of the results and findings
Recommendations:
 What should be done based on the findings
References:
 Lists all sources cited in the research report, following a consistent citation style
Appendices:
 Additional material that supports the report
7.2. Evaluating a research report
Evaluating a research report involves critically assessing its different components, including the
research question, methodology, data analysis, results, discussion, and conclusions, to determine
its validity, reliability, and overall contribution to the field of study; key aspects to consider are
the clarity of purpose, appropriateness of research design, soundness of methods, and whether
the findings are well-supported by evidence and interpreted accurately.

Key areas to evaluate in a research report:

Research Question and Objectives:

 Is the research question clearly stated and focused?

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  Are the objectives specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound
(SMART)?
Literature Review:

 Does the review comprehensively cover relevant existing research on the topic?
 Are the cited sources credible and up-to-date?
 Does the review effectively identify gaps in knowledge that the current study aims to
address?
Methodology:

 Is the research design appropriate for the research question? (e.g., experimental,
correlational, qualitative)
 Are the sampling methods clearly described and justified?
 Are the data collection procedures reliable and valid?
 Are the data analysis techniques appropriate for the type of data collected?
Results:

 Are the findings clearly presented and well-organized?

 Are tables and figures used effectively to illustrate the data?
 Are statistical tests used appropriately and interpreted correctly?
Discussion:

 Do the authors provide a thorough interpretation of the results in relation to the research
question and literature review?
 Are the limitations of the study acknowledged and discussed?
 Are implications for future research and practice clearly outlined?
Conclusions:

 Do the conclusions align with the findings presented in the results section?
 Are the conclusions supported by the evidence presented?
Writing and Presentation:

 Is the report well-written with clear and concise language?

 Is the report properly formatted and structured with appropriate headings and sections?

Ethical Considerations:

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  Were ethical guidelines followed in the research process, including informed consent
and participant privacy?

Chapter 8
Action research
8.1 Concepts of action research
Action research is a methodology where participants actively investigate and work to solve a
problem within their own context, often involving a cyclical process of planning, acting,
observing, reflecting, and then repeating the cycle to continuously improve practices; it
emphasizes collaboration, critical reflection, and a focus on practical change within a community
or group, with the goal of not just generating knowledge but also implementing solutions based
on that knowledge.

In educational contexts, action research is considered as a method to enable and support

educators in pursuing effective pedagogical practices by transforming the quality of teaching
decisions and actions, to subsequently enhance student engagement and learning.

8.2 Purpose of action research

 The purpose of action research is to systematically study and address specific problems
or challenges within a particular context, like a classroom or organization, with the goal
of improving practice and bringing about positive change through a collaborative process
of reflection and action, often involving those directly impacted by the issue at hand.
 Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-
based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It
is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

8.3 Characteristics of action research

Key characteristics of action research:

Focus on practical problems:

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  Action research directly addresses real-world issues and challenges within a specific
context, aiming to find solutions that can be implemented immediately.

Participatory approach:

 Researchers actively involve stakeholders, including those directly affected by the

issue, in the research process, fostering ownership and collaboration.

Iterative cycle:

 Action research follows a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing, reflecting,

and refining the approach based on ongoing findings.

Reflexivity:

 Researchers critically examine their own biases and assumptions throughout the
research process, considering how their actions may influence the results.

Context-specific:

 Findings from action research are highly relevant to the specific setting and participants
involved, making them actionable within that context.

Data collection methods:

 A variety of data collection methods are employed depending on the situation, such as
observations, interviews, surveys, and document analysis.

Emphasis on improvement:
 The ultimate goal of action research is to improve practices, policies, or situations
through informed interventions based on research findings.

8.4 Steps in conducting action research

The steps in conducting action research typically include: identifying a problem or area for
improvement, developing a research plan, collecting data, analyzing data, taking action based on
findings, observing the results of the action, reflecting on the results, making adjustments to the
plan, and repeating the process until the desired outcome is achieved; essentially, it's a cyclical
process of identifying an issue, planning an intervention, implementing it, evaluating its effects,
and refining the approach based on the results.

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 Key steps in action research:
Identify a problem or focus area:
 Clearly define the issue you want to address within your context, whether it's a
classroom practice, organizational process, or community concern.
Develop a research plan:
 Formulate research questions, choose appropriate data collection methods (e.g.,
observations, surveys, interviews), and outline the action steps you will take to address
the problem.

Collect data:

 Gather relevant information about the current situation using your chosen methods,
ensuring data is accurate and representative.

Analyze data:

 Interpret the collected data to identify patterns, trends, and key insights related to the
problem

Take action:

 Implement the planned intervention or strategy based on your analysis to address the
identified issue

Observe and evaluate results:

 Monitor the impact of the action taken and collect data to assess its effectiveness

Reflect and refine:

 Analyze the results, identify areas for improvement, and adjust your plan accordingly

Share findings and disseminate knowledge:

 Communicate your research outcomes to relevant stakeholders to inform practice and
promote further development.

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