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Chapter 3: Data and Signals

This chapter covers the transformation of data into electromagnetic signals for transmission,
the types of signals (analog and digital), and the impairments that can affect signal quality
during transmission.

Analog vs. Digital Signals

To be transmitted, data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals. Data can be
analog or digital.

Analog data is continuous and takes continuous values.

Digital data has discrete states and takes discrete values.

Signals can also be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite number of values within a range.

Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

Here's a visual comparison:

The image compares analog and digital signals. The analog signal graph features a
continuous, wavy line that oscillates. The digital signal graph shows a series of discrete,
rectangular pulses.

In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital
signals.

Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

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Both analog and digital signals can be categorized as periodic or non-periodic.

Periodic signals consist of continuous, repetitive patterns within a time frame called a
period.
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
The period is the amount of time (in seconds) required to complete one full cycle.
Non-periodic signals have no repetitive pattern.
Can be decomposed into an infinite number of periodic signals.

Here's an image illustrating the difference between analog and digital signals:

The image presents a visual representation of the differences between analog and digital
signals. The analog section features three red waveforms with varying amplitudes, each
plotted against a time axis, showcasing continuous signals with smooth transitions. In
contrast, the digital section displays three red waveforms with discrete values, represented by
square waves with abrupt changes, also plotted against a time axis.

Periodic Analog Signals

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

A simple periodic analog signal, like a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.

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Characteristics of Sine Waves

A sine wave can be described by three characteristics:

1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

Here's a look at a sine wave:

Sine Wave

The image depicts a simple line graph with a pink waveform plotted on it. The waveform
oscillates above and below a horizontal axis labeled "Time" on the x-axis and "Value" on the
y-axis.

Amplitude:

The value of signal at any point on the wave on a time domain plot graph.
Measured in volts, ampere, or volts.

The image depicts a waveform graph illustrating the relationship between amplitude and
time. The waveform is a pink, sinusoidal curve that oscillates above and below a central
horizontal line, representing the amplitude of the signal over time.

Frequency and Period are inversely related. Frequency is the rate of change with respect to
time. A short span of time indicates high frequency, while a long span indicates low
frequency. If a signal doesn't change, its frequency is zero; if it changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

Period (P): The time needed to complete one cycle (in seconds).
Frequency (f): The number of cycles in a second (Hertz).

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1 1
P = f =
f P

The image depicts a waveform graph illustrating a periodic signal over time. The waveform is
a pink, sinusoidal curve that oscillates above and below a horizontal axis, with six complete
periods occurring within a 1-second interval. The graph indicates that the frequency of the
signal is 6 Hz, and the period (T) is 1/6 second.

Here's a comparison of two signals with different peak amplitudes:

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The image presents two graphs, labeled "a" and "b", which illustrate signals with distinct
peak amplitudes. Graph "a" depicts a signal with high peak amplitude, characterized by its
greater distance from the zero line, while graph "b" shows a signal with low peak amplitude,
marked by a smaller distance from the zero line.

The units of period and frequency are summarized in the table:

Unit Period (P) Frequency (f)

Second (s) 1s 1 Hz
Millisecond (ms) 10
−3
s 1 kHz
Microsecond (µs) 10
−6
s 1 MHz
Nanosecond (ns) 10
−9
s 1 GHz
Picosecond (ps) 10
−12
s 1 THz

Example: The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave
can be determined as follows: P = = s ≈ 0.0166s
1

f
1

60

Example: Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds. 100 ms = 100 × 10 −3

s = 0.1 s
6
0.1 s = 0.1 × 10 μs = 100, 000μs

Phase:

Describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. Measured in degrees or

radians: 360° = 2π rad; 1° = 2π/360 rad; 1 rad = 360/2π.

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The image presents a visual representation of phase changes in waveforms, comprising four
distinct sections labeled "a," "b," "c," and "d." Each section features two waveforms, one red
and one green, with the red waveform positioned above or partially overlapping the green
waveform.

The image presents a series of four graphs, each representing a different phase shift in a
waveform. The graphs are arranged in two rows of two columns, with the top-left graph
labeled "a. 0 degrees," the top-right graph labeled "b. 90 degrees," the bottom-left graph
labeled "c. 180 degrees," and the bottom-right graph labeled "d. 270 degrees."

Example: A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees
and radians? cycle = × 360 = 60 60 = 60 ×
1

6
1

6
∘ ∘ ∘
=
2π

360
π
radians
3

Time and Frequency Domains

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the
frequency domain.

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The first image depicts a waveform graph illustrating a sinusoidal signal with a peak value of
5 volts and a frequency of 6 Hz. The second image depicts a graph illustrating a signal's
frequency spectrum, with amplitude on the y-axis and frequency in Hertz (Hz) on the x-axis. A
single peak is visible at 6 Hz, with an amplitude of 5 volts.

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send a

composite signal, which is a signal made of many simple sine waves. According to Fourier
analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete
frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.

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The image depicts a graph with a red waveform and a dashed black square wave. The red
waveform has a complex shape, featuring multiple peaks and troughs, while the dashed black
line represents a square wave with sharp transitions between two states.

The first image depicts a waveform graph with a white background and a thin black border.
The waveform is represented by a bright pink line that oscillates above and below a
horizontal axis labeled "Time" on the right side, with an arrow pointing to the right. The
second image depicts a graph illustrating the amplitude of a signal across different
frequencies.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

Example: If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth?

B = fh − fl = 900 Hz − 100 Hz = 800 Hz

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz:

Bandwidth Example 1

The image depicts a graph illustrating the frequency spectrum of a signal, with amplitude on
the y-axis and frequency on the x-axis. The graph features five pink vertical lines, each
representing a specific frequency: 100 Hz, 300 Hz, 500 Hz, 700 Hz, and 900 Hz, all with an
amplitude of 10 volts.

Example: A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What
is the lowest frequency?

B = fh − fl 20 Hz = 60 Hz − fl fl = 60 Hz − 20 Hz = 40 Hz

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Example: A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of 140 kHz. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. What are the
lowest and highest frequencies?

The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.

Bandwidth Example 3

The image presents a graph illustrating the relationship between frequency and amplitude,
featuring a pink triangle with a shaded interior. The x-axis represents frequency, marked with
values of 40 kHz, 140 kHz, and 240 kHz, while the y-axis denotes amplitude.

Digital Signals
Information can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels,
allowing for the transmission of more than 1 bit per level.

The image depicts a digital signal waveform, illustrating the amplitude of a signal over time.
The waveform features a pink line that oscillates between two distinct amplitude levels,
labeled as Level 1 and Level 2, representing binary digits 0 and 1, respectively.

Example: A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

n = log2 8 = 3 bits

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

Example: A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?

n = log2 9 ≈ 3.17 bits

For this example, 4 bits can represent one level.

Example: Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute.
What is the required bit rate of the channel?

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A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. Assuming each character
requires 8 bits:
pages lines characters bits
Bit Rate = 100 × 24 × 80 × 8 = 1, 536, 000 bits/min
min page line character

Example: A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz).
We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?
bits
Bit Rate = 2 × 4 kHz × 8 = 64, 000 bits/s
sample

Here's a look at the time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic digital signals:

The first image presents a visual representation of a signal's time and frequency domains,
comprising two graphs side by side. The second image presents two graphs, one depicting a
time-domain signal and the other a frequency-domain signal.

Broadband & Baseband Transmission

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with frequencies between zero and infinity. We
can send a digital signal using one of two approaches: baseband transmission or broadband
transmission (using modulation).

Baseband Transmission
Sending a digital signal over a channel without changing it to an analog signal.
Requires a low-pass channel, a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.

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Example: Connecting several computers to a bus, but not allowing more than two stations to
communicate at a time.

The image depicts a simple diagram illustrating the transmission of a digital signal through a
channel.

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.

The image presents a graph with a single pink bar, set against a white background.

The first image illustrates a simple diagram with two distinct parts. The top section features
an orange rounded rectangle, representing a band-pass filter with cutoff frequencies f and f
1 2

. The second image displays two graphs, one above the other, illustrating an input signal and
its corresponding output.

Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is
possible only if we have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth. The
required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth. If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel; we need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before
transmission.

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Broadband Transmission (Bandpass)

Sending analog signals over a channel. Requires a bandpass channel, a channel
with a bandwidth that does not start with zero.

The image depicts a graph illustrating a bandpass channel, which is a range of frequencies
that allow a signal to pass through while attenuating all other frequencies.

The image depicts a graph illustrating a bandpass channel, which is a range of frequencies
that allow signals to pass through while attenuating or blocking all other frequencies.

An example of broadband transmission using modulation is sending computer data through a

telephone subscriber line. We convert the digital signal from the computer to an analog signal
and send the analog signal. The converter is called a modem. Another example is the digital
cellular telephone, which converts the analog voice signal to a digital signal. We need to
convert the digitized voice to a composite analog signal before sending.

Transmission Impairment
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. This imperfection causes
signal impairment, meaning that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as
the signal at the end.

Signal Impairment
In data transmission, the signal that is sent is not always what is received due to
impairments. The three main causes of impairment are:

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Attenuation
Distortion
Noise

Causes of Impairment

The diagram outlines the three main causes of signal impairment: attenuation, distortion, and
noise.

Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy.

Diagram of signal transmission and amplification

The image demonstrates how a signal weakens (attenuates) as it travels through a

transmission medium and how an amplifier can restore the signal strength.

Decibels (dB)

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This diagram illustrates an amplifier system with decibel (dB) values, showing signal strength
changes at various points. Note the net gain of 1 dB across the system.

Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

The image shows how a composite signal can be distorted at the receiver end due to
components being out of phase.

Noise
Several types of noise can affect signal transmission:

Thermal noise
Induced noise
Crosstalk noise
Impulse noise

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This diagram illustrates how noise affects a transmitted signal, causing it to be distorted
when received.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Example Calculation
Given a signal power of 10 mW and noise power of 1 μW, the SNR can be calculated.

The values of SNR for a noiseless channel are ideal and not achievable in real life.

Data Rate Limits

Data rate, measured in bits per second (bps), is affected by:

1. Bandwidth available
2. Signal levels used
3. Channel quality (noise level)

Two theoretical formulas calculate the data rate:

Nyquist: For noiseless channels

Shannon: For noisy channels

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

To calculate the bit rate for a noiseless channel, we use the Nyquist Bit Rate formula:

Bit rate = 2 × bandwidth × log2L

Where:

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Bandwidth is the channel's bandwidth.

L is the number of signal levels.

Increasing signal levels may reduce system reliability.

Example 1
The Nyquist theorem bit rate matches the intuitive bit rate in baseband transmission when
using two levels. The Nyquist formula is more general, applicable to both baseband
transmission and modulation, and accommodates two or more signal levels.

Example 2
For a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz and two signal levels, the maximum bit
rate is:

Bit rate = 2 × 3000 × log22 = 6000 bps

Example 3
To send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz, the required signal
levels can be found using the Nyquist formula:

265000 = 2 × 20000 × log2L

log2L = 6.625

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to adjust the number of levels or reduce the bit
rate. With 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps, while with 64 levels, it is 240 kbps.

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In reality, channels are always noisy. To determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel, use the Shannon Capacity formula:

Capacity = bandwidth × log2(1 + SN R)

Where:

Bandwidth is the channel's bandwidth.

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio.

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Example 1
For an extremely noisy channel where the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero:

C = bandwidth × log2(1 + 0) = 0

The capacity of this channel is zero, regardless of the bandwidth.

Example 2
For a regular telephone line with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 3162:

C = 3000 × log2(1 + 3162) ≈ 34860 bps

The highest bit rate for a telephone line is approximately 34.860 kbps.

Example 3
Given SN R = 36 and a channel bandwidth of 2 MHz, the theoretical channel capacity can
dB

be calculated as:
(SN RdB/10) 3.6
SN R = 10 = 10 ≈ 3981

6
C = 2 × 10 × log2(1 + 3981) ≈ 24 M bps

Example 4
For a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth and an SNR of 63:

Using the Shannon formula:

6
C = 1 × 10 × log2(1 + 63) = 6 M bps

This gives the upper limit. For better performance, choosing 4 Mbps, and then using the
Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels:
6 6
4 × 10 = 2 × 1 × 10 × log2L

L = 4

The Shannon capacity provides the upper limit, while the Nyquist formula determines the
required signal levels.

Network Performance

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Key metrics for assessing network performance include:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product

Bandwidth
A range of frequencies used for transmitting a signal.

In networking, bandwidth is used in two contexts:

In hertz, it refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range that a
channel can pass.
In bits per second, it refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

Throughput
Measures how fast data can actually be sent through a network.

Bandwidth is a potential measurement, while throughput is an actual measurement of data

transmission speed.

Latency / Delay
Measures the time it takes for an entire message to arrive at the destination.

Latency comprises four components:

Propagation time
Transmission time
Queuing time
Processing delay

Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay

Bandwidth-Delay Product
Defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

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The image visualizes data transmission between a sender and a receiver, illustrating the
relationship between bandwidth, delay, and the resulting bandwidth-delay product.

The image shows data transmission with a bandwidth of 4 bits per second and a delay of 5
seconds, resulting in a bandwidth-delay product of 20 bits.

Analogy
The link between two points can be thought of as a pipe, where the cross-section represents
the bandwidth and the length represents the delay. The volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product.

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Jitter
Another performance issue related to delay.

Jitter is a problem when different packets of data encounter different delays.

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