(2 :30 PM)

(Important)
 FUNCTIONS
Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then the rule f associated with each x ∈ A ,
with a unique number y ∈ B is called a function from A to B . A function can be
represented by mapping, by
algebraic method, or in the form of
an ordered pair. f : A → B is a
function if each element in set A has
its image in set B . For a function, it is
impossible to have more than one
image for a specific element in set A
.
Let the sets A and B have m and n elements respectively, then the total number
of functions from set A to B is nm .

Types of Functions

Based on
Algebraic Transcendental Others
Elements

Piecewise
One-one Trigonometric Explicit & Implicit
Many-one Inverse- Identity
Polynomial
Onto Trigonometric
Rational Modulus
Into Exponential
Irrational Greatest Integer
0ne-one-onto Logarithmic
Signum
Reciprocal
Even & Odd
Periodic
Composite

One-one (injective) Function: If a function is given in the form of ordered pairs

and if two ordered pairs do not have the same second element, then the function
is one-one. If the graph of the function y = f ( x ) is given, and each line parallel to x
-axis cuts the given curve at most one point, then the function is one-one. If A and
B are finite sets having m and n elements, respectively, then the number of one-
 nPm if n ≥ m 
one functions from A to B =  
 0 if n < m 
Many-one Function: If a function is given in the form of a set of ordered pairs and
the second elements of at least two ordered pairs are the same, then the function
is many-one. If the graph of
y = f ( x ) is given and the line
parallel to the x -axis cuts
the curve at more than one
point, then the function is
many-one.
Onto (Surjective) Function:
It is a function where every
element in the codomain
(the set of potential outputs)
is mapped to at least one
element in the domain (the
set of inputs). If A and B are
two sets having m and n
elements respectively, such
n

∑ ( −1)
n− r n
that 1 ≤ n ≤ m , then the number of onto functions from A to B is Cr r m .
r =1

Into Function: If range is a proper subset of the co-domain, then y = f ( x ) is into.

One-one onto (bijective) Function: A bijective function is both injective and

surjective. If A has n elements, then the number of bijections from A to B is the
total number of arrangements of n items taken all at a time i.e. n! .
Algebraic Function: A function that consists of a finite number of terms involving
powers and roots of the independent variable and the four fundamental
x
operations. Ex. x 5 + 6 x 3 + 3, etc.
3x + 2
Explicit Function: Expressed directly in terms of the independent variable. Ex.
y =f (x)
Implicit Function: Cannot be expressed directly in terms of the independent
variable. Ex. x 2 + y 2 =
c
Greatest Integer Function: It is of the form f ( x ) =  x  where  x  is the integer
equal to or less than x . Ex. 4.2  =
4,−5.8 =
−6 .
Modulus Function: It can be defined as f ( x ) = x where the domain is the set of all
real numbers and the range is the set of all non-negative real numbers.
x 
 for x ≠ 0
Signum Function: It can be defined as f ( x ) =  x  where the domain is
0 for x = 0 
 
the set of all real numbers and the range is the set of -1,0 and 1.
Trancendental Function: Functions which are not algebraic. Ex:
sin x,cos −1 x, e x ,log x etc.
Periodic Function: A function is said to be a periodic function if its each value is
repeated after a definite interval. It is expressed as f ( x + T=) f ( x ) ∀x ∈ Domain
Composite Function: It is the combination of two or more functions as a single
function. Ex. ( f  g )( x ) = f { g ( x )}

Graphical representation of different functions:

Properties regarding the Even f ( -x ) = f ( x ) and Odd f ( -x ) = -f ( x ) Functions

• Any polynomial function f : R → R is onto if the degree of f is odd, and into if
the degree of f is even.
• An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-domain as the
range of the original function.
• The graph of an odd function is always symmetric with respect to the origin.
• The product of two even functions is an even function.
• The sum and difference of two even functions is an even function.
• The sum and difference of two odd functions is an odd function.
• The product of two odd functions is an even function.
• The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function
• It is not essential that every function be even or odd. It is possible to have
some functions that are neither even nor odd.
• The sum of even and odd functions is neither even nor an odd function.
 • Zero function f ( x ) = 0 is the only function that is even and odd both.

Trigonometric Function: The six trigonometric ratios (sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, csc)
are the relationships between the angle and sides of a right triangle

Domain and Range of trigonometric and inverse trigonometric identitites

Trig Domain Range Trig Domain Range
Function Functio
sin x  −1,1 n
cos x sin−1 x −1,1  π π
 −1,1 − 2 , 2 
 
tan x  π 
 − ( 2 n + 1) , n ∈Ι  ( −∞, ∞ )
 2 
cos −1 x −1,1 0,π 
csc x  − {nπ , n ∈Ι} ( −∞, −1∪ 1, ∞ ) tan−1 x ( −∞, ∞ )  π π
− 2,2 
sec x  π   
 − ( 2 n + 1) , n ∈Ι 
 2  ( −∞, −1∪ 1, ∞ ) csc −1 x ( −∞, −1∪ 1, ∞ )  π π
 − 2 , 2  − {0}
 
cot x  − {nπ , n ∈Ι} ( −∞, ∞ ) sec −1 x ( −∞, −1∪ 1, ∞ ) π 
0,π  −  
2 
cot −1 x ( −∞, ∞ ) ( 0,π )
Graph of Trigonometric Functions
Graph of Inverse trigonometric Function

Algebraic Operations on Function

Functions f and g with Domain fD and

gD respectively
(f + g )( x=) f ( x ) + g ( x ) ∀x ∈ Df ∩ Dg
(f − g )( x=) f ( x ) − g ( x ) ∀x ∈ Df ∩ Dg
(f ⋅ g )( x=) f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) ∀x ∈ Df ∩ Dg
f  f (x)
 ( x )
= ; g ( x ) ≠ 0,∀x ∈ Df ∩ Dg
g g( x )

List of Formulae Regarding Trigonometric Functions

Formula to transform the product into sum and difference

B sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B )
2sin Acos = B sin ( A + B ) − sin ( A − B )
2cos A sin=
B cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B )
2cos Acos= B cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B )
2sin A sin=
 Formulae to transform the sum or difference into a product

A+ B A− B A+ B A− B
sin A + sin B =
2sin cos sin A − sin B =
2cos sin
2 2 2 2
A+ B A− B A+ B B−A
cos A + cos B =2cos cos cos A − cos B =
2sin sin
2 2 2 2

Formulae for trigonometric ratios of the sum and difference of two angles

sin (=
A + B ) sin Acos B + cos A sin B sin (=
A − B ) sin Acos B − cos A sin B
( A + B ) cos Acos B − sin Asin B
cos = ( A − B ) cos Acos B + sin Asin B
cos=
tan A + tan B tan A − tan B
tan ( A + B ) = tan ( A − B ) =
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
cot Acot B − 1 cot Acot B + 1
cot ( A + B ) = cot ( A − B ) =
cot B + cot A cot B − cot A
sin ( A + B ) sin ( A − B=) sin A − sin =
2 2 2
B cos B − cos A2

cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B
=) cos2 A − sin2=
B cos2 B − sin2 A
sin ( A ± B ) sin ( B ± A)
tan A ± tan B = cot A ± cot B =
cos Acos B sin A sin B
cos ( B − A) − cos ( B + A)
tan A + cot B = tan A − cot B =
cos A sin B cos A sin B
cos ( A  B ) cos ( A − B )
1 ± tan A tan B = 1 + cot Acot B =
cos Acos B sin A sin B
− cos ( A + B )
1 − cot Acot B =
sin A sin B

Formula for the trigonometric ratios of multiples of an angle

2 tan A 1 − tan2 A
= =
sin2 A 2sin Acos A .. 2 2
cos2 A = cos A − sin A =
1 + tan2 A 1 + tan2 A
2 tan A 3tan A − tan3 A
tan2 A = tan3 A =
1 − tan2 A 1 − 3tan2 A
=
sin3 A 3sin A − 4sin3 A cos3 A 4cos3 A − 3cos A
=
sin4 A 4sin Acos3 A − 4cos A sin3 A
= cos4 A = 8cos4 A − 8cos2 A + 1
4 tan A − 4 tan3 A sin5 A =16sin5 A − 20sin3 A + 5sin A
tan4 A =
1 − 6 tan2 A + tan4 A
cos5 A =16cos5 A − 20cos3 A + 5cos A
Formulae for the trigonometric ratio of submultiple angles

A A
cos + sin =+
1 sin A
2 2
A A
sin − cos =1 − sin Aa
2 2
A 1 − cos A 1 − cos A
tan =
± = ,where A ≠ ( 2 n + 1) π
2 1 + cos A sin A
A 1 + cos A 1 + cos A
cot =
± = ,where A ≠ 2 nπ
2 1 − cos A sin A

Formulae for conditional trigonometric identities

sin2 A CC
sin2 B sin2 C =1 − 2sin A sin B sinC ; If A CCB C = 90° then
2 2 2
cos A CCcos B cos C = 2 C 2sin A sin B sinC ; If A CC
B C = 90° then
sin2 A CC
sin2B sin2C = 4cos Acos B cos C ; If A CC B C = 90° then
B C= 180° then the following conditions are true
If A CC
sin2 A CCsin2B sin2C = 4sin A sin B sinC sin2 A C sin2B − sin2C =4cos Acos B sinC
cos2 A CC cos2B cos2C =−1 − 4cos Acos B cos C
cos2 A C cos2B − cos2C = 1 − 4sin A sin B cos C
A B C A B C
sin A CC
sin B sinC =4cos cos cos sin A C sin B − sinC =
4sin sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C A B C
cos A CCcos B cos C =1 C 4sin sin sin cos A C cos B − cos C =−1 C 4cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

sin2 A C sin2 B − sin2 C =2sin A sin B cos C sin2 A CC

sin2 B sin2 C =2 C 2cos Acos B cos C
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos A C cos B − cos C = 1 − 2sin A sin B cos C cos A CCcos B cos C = 1 − 2cos Acos B cos C

cot B cot C CC
cot C cot A cot Acot B = 1 tan A CC
tan B tanC =tan A tan B tanC
B C C A A B A B C A B C
tan tan CC tan tan tan tan = 1 cot CCcot cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Trigonometric General Solution

Equation
sinθ = sinα θ nπ + ( −1) α where n ∈Ι
=
n

cosθ = cosα θ 2nπ ± α where n ∈ Ι

=
tanθ = tanα θ nπ + α where n ∈Ι
=
sinθ = 0 =θ nπ where n ∈Ι
cosθ = 0 π
θ nπ +
= where n ∈Ι
2
sinθ = 1 π
θ 2 nπ +
= where n ∈Ι
2
sinθ = −1 π
θ 2 nπ −
= where n ∈Ι
2
cosθ = 1 =θ 2 nπ where n ∈Ι

Trigonometric General Solution

Equation
cosθ = −1 θ
= ( 2n + 1)π where n ∈Ι
sinθ = ±1 π
θ
= ( 2 n + 1)
where n ∈Ι
2
cosθ = ±1 =θ nπ where n ∈Ι
Formulae for inverse trigonometric functions

−1 −1
cos x + cos y =
 ( )
cos −1 xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x + y ≥ 0 

 
( )
2π − cos −1 xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x + y ≤ 0
 

−1
cos x − cos y =−1  ( )
cos −1 xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x ≤ y 

 

−1
( 2 2
)
− cos xy + 1 − x 1 − y if − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0,0 < x ≤ 1, x ≥ y 

 −1
(
sin 2 x 1 − x if −

2
)
1
2
≤x≤
1
2





−1
(
2sin x = π − sin 2 x 1 − x if
−1 2 1
2
)
≤ x ≤1





−1
(
−π − sin 2 x 1 − x if − 1 ≤ x ≤ −
2
) 1 
2


 −1 1 1 
( 3
sin 3 x − 4 x if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 ) 
 
 1 
−1
(
3sin x = π − sin 3 x − 4 x if ≤ x ≤ 1
−1 3

2
) 
 
−π − sin−1 3 x − 4 x 3 if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1 


( ) 2 
 −1
( 2
cos 2 x − 1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2cos −1 x = 
) 



 2π − cos −1
2 x (
2
− 1 if − 1 )
≤ x ≤ 0 

 1 
−1
( 3
cos 4 x − 3 x if 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ) 
 
 1 1 
−1
(
3cos x= 2π − cos 4 x − 3 x if − ≤ x ≤ 
−1 3

2
) 2 

2π + cos −1 4 x 3 − 3 x if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1 


( ) 2
Formulae for inverse trigonometric functions

 −1  x + y  
tan   if xy < 1 
  1 − xy  

  x + y  

tan−1 x + tan−1 y =π + tan−1   if x > 0, y > 0, xy > 1 
  1 − xy  
 −1  x + y 

−π + tan   if x < 0, y < 0, xy > 1 

  1 − xy  


 −1  x − y  
tan   if xy > −1 
  1 + xy  

  x −y  

= π + tan−1 
tan−1 x − tan−1 y  if x > 0, y < 0, xy < −1 
  1 + xy  
  x − y  
−π + tan 
−1
 if x < 0, y > 0, xy < −1

  1 + xy  

 x + y + z − xyz 
tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z =
tan−1  
 1 − xy − yz − zx 
 −1  2 x  
tan  1 − x 2  if − 1 < x < 1 
   
 −1  2 x  
π + tan 
−1
2 tan x = 2 
if x > 1 
  1− x  
  2 x  
−π + tan 
−1
2 
if x < −1
  1− x  
 −1  3 x − x 
3
1 1 
 tan  2 
if − <x< 
  1 − 3x  3 3
 
−1  3 x − x 
3
 1 
3 tan−1 x = π + tan  2 
if x > 
  1 − 3x  3 
  3 x − x 3
 1 
−π + tan−1  2 
if x < − 

  1 − 3x  3  

 ( )
sin−1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 



(
−1 2
)
sin x + sin y = π − sin x 1 − y + y 1 − x if 0 < x, y ≤ 1, x + y > 1 
−1 −1 2 2 2 

( )
−π − sin−1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y < 1, x 2 + y 2 > 1
 

( )
sin−1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1


( )
sin−1 x − sin−1 y= π − sin−1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 if 0 < x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 0, x 2 + y 2 >

( )
−π − sin−1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 if − 1 ≤ x < 0,0 < y ≤ 1, x 2 + y 2

  π π  1 5
Example 1: f= ( x ) 2 cos2 x + cos2  x +  − 3 cos x cos  x +   and g  2  = 2 ,
  6  6   
then find the value of ( gof ) ( x ) .

Solution
 π π 
f=( x ) 2 cos2 x + cos2  x +  − 3 cos x cos  x +  
  6  6 
 π  π
f (=x ) 2cos2 x + 2cos2  x +  − 2 3 cos x cos  x + 
 6  6
 π  π π
f (x)= 1 + cos2 x + 1 + cos  2 x +  − 3 cos  2 x +  − 3 cos
 3  6 6
  π  π  3
f ( x ) =2 + cos2 x + cos  2 x +  − 3 cos  2 x +  − 
  3  6  2
 3  π π  π 
f (=x )  2 −  + 2cos  2 x +  cos − 3 cos  2 x +  
 2  6 6  6 
1  π  π 
f ( x ) =  + 3 cos  2 x +  − 3 cos  2 x +  
2  6  6 
1
f (x)=
2

The calculation
for the composite function is as follows:
1 5
) ( x ) g{f=
( gof= ( x )} g=
2 2 .
 
1/ n

 a
n 

Example 2: Let f ( a ) =   for n ≥ 2 and g ( a ) = ( f of o ...... of ) ( a ) . Then
 1+ a

n
( ) 

(((( 
f should be n times

calculate ∫ a n−2
g ( a ) da .

Solution
1/ n

 an 

Given f ( a ) =   , for n ≥ 2 .The composite function is calculated as follows:
 1+ a

n
( ) 

(f of ) ( a )
= f (f ( a ) )
 n  
1/ n
 a
= f  
 1 + an  
( )
   
 
 a 
=f
( )
 1 + an 1/n 
 
 a
(1 + a )
1/ n
n

= 1/ n
  
n

  a  
1 +  1/ n  
  (
 1+ a
n
) 
 
a
=
( 1 + 2a )
1/ n
n

a
 
( )
1/ n
a 1 + 2 an a
(f of of ) ( a ) f =
=   =
 1 + 2 an 1/n  
( ) ( 1 + 3a )
1/ n 1/ n
a n  n
  1 + 
 1 + 2 an  ( )
a
From the above two patterns
= we get g ( a ) ((
of o...... of ) ( a )
f=
((( 
( 1 + na )
1/ n
n
f should be n times

an−1
∫ a g ( a ) da = ∫
n
The calculation for the integral n−2
da . Let u = 1 + na then
( 1 + na )
1/ n
n

du = n2 an−1da . Applying “ u -substitution” the integral solution obtained

( 1 + na )
1− 1/ n
n
1 1 u 1−1/n
∫a
n−2
g ( a ) da = 2 ∫ u −1/n du = 2 ⋅ +c= +c .
n n 1 − 1/ n n ( n − 1)

 1   2   3   999 
Example 3: Find the sum 1 + 1 +  + 1 +  + 1 +  + ........ + 1 + 
 1000   1000   1000   1000 
,

Solution

As [*] denotes the greatest integer function, we have:

 999 
1 + 1000  = [1.999] = 1
 
 1 
1 + 1000  = [1.001] = 1
 

The solution is as follows:

 1 h  2 h  3 h  999 h
= ei
1h + 1 +  + 1 +  + 1 +  + ........ + 1 +
1000
eieieiei 1000 1000 1000 
= 1 + 1 + ......... + 1 ( thousand times )
= 1000
Example 4: Find the domain of
  
  
1
f ( x ) =log2  − log1/2  1 +   + log (log x ) − log ( 2 − log x ) − log 5
   x0   
2 2 2 2 2

  sin    
  10   
 

Solution
Applying the properties of rational and logarithmic functions
log2 (log2 x ) − log2 ( 2 − log2 x ) − log2 5 ≥ 0
log2 (log2 x ) − log2 5 ( 2 − log2 x ) ≥ 0
log2 x
log2 ≥0
(10 − 5log2 x )
log2 x
≥ 20
(10 − 5log2 x )
log2 x
≥1
(10 − 5log2 x )
Let, log2 x = t
t 5
So, ≥ 1 ⇒ 5t ≥ 10 − t ⇒ 6t ≥ 10 ⇒ t ≥
(10 − 5t ) 3
5
So, log2 x ≥ 5 ⇒ x ≥ 2
Again log2 x > 0 ⇒ x > 20 ⇒ x > 1
Again 2 − log2 x > 0 ⇒ log2 x < 2 ⇒ x < 2 2

From the above conditions, the domain is 2 2 < x ≤ 25

Also,
 
 
 1 >0
− log1/2 1 +
  x0  
 sin   
  10  
 
 
 1 >0
log2 1 +
 x  0 
 sin   
  10  
1
1+ >1
 πx 
sin  
 180 
 πx 
sin  >0
 180 
 πx
0< <π
180
0 < x < 180

Combining the intervals, the domain obtained for f ( x ) is 2 2 < x ≤ 25 .

Example 5:

25 x
Let f ( x ) = , then find the value of the sum
25 x + 5
 1   2   3   2024 
f  +f   +f   + ...... + f  
 2025   2025   2025   2025 

Solution

 1  251/2025
f  = 1/2025
 2025  25 +5
 2024  25 2024/2025
25 ⋅ 25−1/2025 25 5
=
f  =2024/2025
= −1/2025
= 1/2025
 2025  25 + 5 25 ⋅ 25 + 5 25 + 5 ⋅ 25 5 + 251/2025

Now, adding the above expressions

 1   2024  251/2025 5
f  + f   = 1/2025
+ = 1
 2025   2025  25 + 5 5 + 251/2025
 2   2023 
f +f  = 1
 2025   2025 
 3   2022 
f +f  = 1
 2025   2025 
.
.
 1012   1013 
f +f  =1
 2025   2025 

The sum will be

 1   2   3   2024 
f  +f   +f   + ...... + f  
 2025   2025   2025   2025 
= 1 + 1 + 1...... + ( 1012 times )
= 1012
EXERCISE

15
1
1. Find the value of ∑ k =1  π ( k − 1) π   π kπ 
sin  +  sin  + 
4 3  4 3 

2. X and Y are two sets and f : X → Y . If {f ( c ) =y ; c ⊂ X , y ⊂ Y } and

{f ( d ) = x; x ⊂ X ,d ⊂ Y } , then find {f (f ( a ) )} .
−1 −1

3. An even polynomial function f ( x ) satisfies a relation

  1 
f (2x ) 1 − f  
 2x  
2
( )
 + f 16 x y = f ( −2 ) − f ( 4 xy ) ∀x, y ∈ R − {0} and f ( 4 ) = −255,

f ( 0 ) = 1 , then find the value of f ( 2 )

SOLUTIONS
 π kπ  π
1. Let θ k =  +  ;0 ≤ k ≤ 15 . So, θ k − θ k −1 =
4 3  3
The calculation for the sum is as follows:
15
1
S=∑
k =1  π ( k − 1) π   π kπ 
sin  +  sin  + 
 4 3  4 3 
3
2 15
2
= ∑ θ
3 k =1 sin k − 1 sinθ k

π
sin
2 15
3
= ∑ sinθ
3 k =1 k − 1 sinθ k

2 15 sin (θ k − θ k −1 )
=
3
∑ sinθ
k =1 sinθ k
k −1

Further, the calculation is as follows:

 2 15
=S
3
∑ ( cotθ
k =1
k −1 − cot θ k )

2
= ( cotθ0 − cotθ15 )
3
2   π 15π  
= 1 − cot  +
3 4 3  
2   π 
=  1 − cot  5π +  
3  4 
2  π
S= 1 − cot 4  = 2 1 − 1= 0
3 

2. As per the conditions f : X → Y , {f ( c ) =y ; c ⊂ X , y ⊂ Y } and

{f ( d ) = x; x ⊂ X ,d ⊂ Y } we can deduce the following:
−1

As f −1 ( d ) = x ⇒ f ( x ) = d ; If a ⊂ x ⇒ f ( a ) ⊂ f ( x ) = d
∴f −1 ( f ( a ) ) =
a, a ⊂ x

1
3. Let, y = . Substituting this value in the given relation
8x 2
  1   1   1 
⇒ f (2 x ) 1 − f    + f  16 x ⋅ 2  = f ( −2 ) − f  4 x ⋅ 2 
2

  2x   8x   8x 
  1   1 
⇒ f (2 x ) 1 − f    + f ( 2 ) = f ( −2 ) − f  
  2x   2x 
  1   1 
⇒ f (2x ) 1 − f   = −f  " f "is an even function f ( − x ) =
 ei f ( x )
  2x    2x 
 1   1 
⇒ f (2x ) + f   =f ( 2 x )f  
 2x   2x 
If f ( x ) is a polynomial satisfying the condition
1 1
f (x)+f  =
 f ( x ) ⋅ f   ∀x ∈ R − {0} then f ( x ) = 1 ± x n .
x x
f ( 2 x ) = 1 ± ( 2 x ) ⇒ f ( x ) = 1 ± x n ⇒ f ( 4 ) = 1 ± 4 n ⇒ −255 = 1 ± 4 n ⇒ −256 = ±4 n
n

4 n (not possible ) ; −256 =

⇒ −256 = −4 n ⇒ n =
4
From the above pattern, we get f ( x ) =−
1 x n ⇒ f ( 2 ) =−
1 2 4 =−
1 16 =−15