UNIT V -STAFFING IN SOFTWARE PROJECTS

5.1 Managing People

Understanding Behavior
> Handling of projects with practical experience becomes a vital role in the aspect
of project management.
> The managers must be able to decide on whether it is better to have experienced
staff or get an expert advice.
There are numerous theories defined to explain people's behavior.
The theòries are structures based on "lf Ais the situation then B is likely to be the
solution.
Other than the structures, there a wide range of influences on a situation which
are invisible to the users which makes it difficult to decide on the solution.

5.2 Organizational Behavior

5.2.1 Work Objectives
> Fredrick Taylor analyzed the productive way of doing things and trained the
workers with these objectives:
Toselect the best people for the job
To instruct them in the best methods
" To give them incentives based on their performance
These work objectives defined by Taylor emphasis exclusively on the financial
basis of the staff motivation and performance-related pay.
This encouragement to the staff will help the project group to work together in
achieving their goals which ultimately increases the productivity.
People may be motivated by money, but they are motivated by other factors as
well.

5.2.2 Theory Xand Theory Y

Some managers' work for money being instrumental or called as cash
oriented persons can be categorized based on their individual attitudes.
 Donald McGregor labeled two different attitudes as Theory Xand Theory Y.
> Theory Xincludes
On an average, not every human likes to work.
Somebody must have the controland direct the person to work.
" Generally, people do not like hold responsibilities.
Theory Yincludes
People must like to work not forced todo it.
External control is not the way to reach organizational goals.
There must acommitment towards the work allocated to individuals.
An average human can learn to accept and seek responsbility.
Creative qualities must be widely distributed.
> Individual's behavior towards the organization can be observed when their
boss is not available.
Theory X environment makes everybody to relax which can be seen visibly
whereas Theory Yis more a goal oriented approach of the people involved in
the development.
Areward does not need to be a financial reward but it could be something like
a sense of achievement.
This theoryexplains the expectations which have a greater influence towards
the organizational behavior.

5.3 Best methods for staff selection

5.3.1 Selecting the right person for the right job

> Taylor formulated this factor of selecting the right person for the right job.
> The other factors which includes the use of software tools, methodologies,
programmingproductivity and so on.
> It is always better to have the best people employed in the right place of work
for effective productivity.
Say for example, a study on comparing experienced programmer in
debugging a code with a less experienced person was futile when the results
 were drawn.
Gerald Weinberg, "Most programmers prefer to work alone
According to
people".
where they are not disturbed by other

5.3.2 Recruitment Process

manager about choosing the right
There is alot of stress for every project
PInous people to make up their team.
Recruitment is an organizational responsibility
process of selecting the
person form their organization.
in recruiting process into two different
nlosd p > Meredith Belbin categorizes people
types.
have the right information
Eligible candidates are those persons who
curriculum vitaecontains
needed by the organization in paper, i.e. the
qualifications.
pue u the right number or years and right paper
not officially
Suitable candidates can actually do the job well but are
be more loyal
eligible. ldeal candidates once given apost are likely to
towards the welfare of the organization.
selecting a person rather
> Actual skills have to be taken into account while
than mere eligibility.
race, gender, age or
The recruitment policy must avoid discrimination of
irrelevant disabilities.

> Arecruitment process must include:

out
Creation of job specification: type of task that has to be carried
must be documented and agreed.
Creation of job profile: constructs aprofile of the person needed to
and
carry out the job with qualities, qualifications, education
experience.
Obtaining applicants: placing an advertisement within the organization
or the local press to get a maximum number of potential applicants.
Examine Curriculum Vitae: all the received CV's are compared with the
iob holder profile and if satisfied are called for interview.
 Interviews: these include the aptitude tests, technical tests,
personality tests and examination of previous work. Group discussions
are also used for evaluatingand examining the statements provided in
the CV.
References: need to be verified and a medical examination test can
also be done if needed.

5.3.3 Instruction in the Best Methods

The responsibility of the team leader becomes very high in case of recruiting
new members into the team.
Half way through the project process, maximum effort must be taken to make
the induction ofa new member into the team as an effective one.
Team members must be continually assessed by the team leader to meet
their demands in the development process.
Proper training must be given to every staff member involved in the
development of the project.
There are many companies which provide training to the staffs by conducting
specific courses and giving hand-on training about the new software tool by
demonstration.
Whatever may be, the training process must be actually implemented by the
team members as a whole in order to meet the objectives.

5.4 Motivation
Motivation Theories
There are various theories formulated by different persons for motivating
the people to work. They are,
Taylorist Model
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Expectancy Theory of Motivation.
 5.4.1 Taylorlst Model
Inthis model, Taylor emphasis on the piece-rates and day-rates.
> Piecerates are those where the workers are paid a fixed sum for each single
item they produce whereas day-rates refer to the daily pay that is given to the
workers on atimely basis.
The tendency towards dispersed or virtual projects where the staffs either
wotk in organization or work at home has adifference in the payment based
on time worked.

> The amount paidto the workers willnot directly relate to maximize the output
in order to maximize their income.
> The amount of output will normally depend on the working group and not
based onan individual.
> Areward based on piece-rates is directly proportional to the work produced.
But a support team cannot be adjudged by asingle person, instead it is group
activity and the reward must be given to the group as a whole.
> In Taylorist model, the reward system makes excessive distinctions between
co workers that result in damaging morale and productivity.
> This can be balanced by giving bonuses to project team members after
completion of asuccessful project.

5.4.2 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance are:
1.Physiological Needs: These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself,
such as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep. Maslow felt that until these
needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life, other needs will not
motivate people.

2.Security or Safety Needs: These are the needs to be free of physical danger and
of the fear of losinga job property, food, or shelter.
 3. Affiliation or Social Needs: Since people are social beings, they need to belong.
to be accepted by others. It includes friendship, the need to love and be loved,
socializing, etc.

4. Esteem Needs: Once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to
want to

be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces
such satistactions as respect, power, prestige, status, and self-confidence.

5.Selfactualization Needs: This is the highest need in the hierarchy. It is the

desire to become what one is capabl of becoming-to fully realizes one's
potential and to accomplish what one is capable of achieving.

5.4.3 Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

People tendto be dissatisfied about their job due to certain factors. They are
Hygiene or maintenance factors
Motivators

º A hygiene factor makes the person dissatisfied if they are not rightly used.
For example, the working condition of the worker.
> Motivators can make the person feel that the job is worth doing it, like a
sense of achievement or the challenge of the work.
Higher-level of maintenance factors can be provided by large organizations
whereas better motivation can be provided to workers who work in smaller
organizations.

5.4.4 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Vroom identified three influencing factors on motivation. They are:
Expectancy
Instrumetality
Perceived value

> Expectancy is a belief that working harder will lead to better performance.
 Instrumentality is the belief that better performance willbe rewarded.
Percelved value denotes the resulting reward.
r When all these factors are high. then the
motivation level will also be high. At
the same time, azero level for any one of the factor can
remOve motIvation
completely.
For example, when the developer is suppose to get a software package
Supplied by athird party to work and it contains a bug, the worker gives up
since how much hard work the worker puts in it will not lead to success
denotes zero expectancy.
On the other side, if the user is not using the package supplied by the
developer, instead the user work_ on an alternative tool, it makes the
developer feel that it is waste of time and leads to zero instrumentality.
Suppose if the user is using the package but keeps on complaining about the
package and makes the developer responsibility for all short-comings, then at
some point of time the developer will not like to get involved for implementing
a newer package which leads to low perceive value of reward.
5.5 The Oldham-Hackman job characteristic model

Oldman and Hackman coined a rule that managers should group together the
elements of tasks that is carried out must be meaningful and satisfying
assignments.
The satisfaction of any job willdepend on the following factors:
Skillvariety
" Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback

5.5.1 Elements of Tasks

º Factors that make the job meaningful to the person who is doing it are skill
 variety, task identity and task
significance.
Skill variety is the number of different skills that
the job holder has the
opportunity to exercise.
Task ldentty is the degree to which the person's work and
its results are
identifiable as belongingto the person.
Task significance is the degree to which the job has an influence on others.
The autonomy factor is the discretion about the way the
person works.
> Feedback is the information the person receives back
about the results of
his/her work.
Personal growth needs and their working environment also influence the
perception of the job.
º In general, activities of the developing product should be designed in such a
manner that the person must feel personally associated with it.
5.5.2 Methods to Improve Motivation

Managers must adopt the factors listed below to improve motivation.

Set specific goals
Provide feedback
Consider job design
> Specific goals must be demanding goals but yet acceptable by staff and
should gain approval from them.
> Providingfeedback reflects the performance of the staff about how they are
progressing.
> Considering job design makes the job more interesting and provides the staff
with greater responsibility.

5.5.3 Measures for enhancing Job

> Managers must involve the following measures toenhance the job design: .
Job enlargement
" Job enrichment
doing
> Job enlargement is exactly reverse of specialization where the person
 the job carries out awider variety of
activities.
Say Tor example, a software developer associated with maintenance group
might be given additional responsibility for specifying minor changes in other
phases.
> Job enrichment is where the job holder carried out tasks at managerial and
supervisory level.
Say for example, programmers in maintenance group might be given authority
to accept requests for changes for a very small period (five days) without
gettingmanger's approval.

5.6 Ethical and Programmed Concerns

Ethics relates to the moral obligation to respect the rights and interests of others -
goesbeyondstrictly legal responsibilities.

Three groups of responsibilities:

Responsibilities that everyone has

Responsibilities that people in organizations have

Responsibilities relating to your profession or calling
Organizational ethics
There are some who argue that ethical organizational ethics are limited:
Stockholder theory (e.g. Milton Friedman). An employee's duty is to the
owners of the business (which often means the stakeholders) above all
others - although legal
requirements must be met.
Competitive relationships between businesses.
Competition may cause you to do things that could have a negative impact on

the
Treatment
owners or employees of competitive businesses Uniform
 One example of organizational ethics is the uniform treatment of all
employees. Small business owners should treat all employees with the same
respect, regardless of their race, religion, cultures or lifestyles. Everyone should
also have equal chances for promotions. One way to promote
unitorm
treatment in organizations is through sensitivity training. Some companies hold
one-day seminars on various discrimination issues. They then invite outside
experts in to discuss these topics. Similarly, small company managers must
also avoid favoring one employee over others. This practice may also lead to
lawsuits from disgruntled employees. It is also counterproductive.

Social Responsibility
Small companies also have an obligation to protect the community. For
example, the owner of a small chemical company needs to communicate
certain dangers to the community when explosions or other disasters occur.
The owner must also maintain certain safety standards for protecting nearby
residents from leaks that affect the water or air quality. There are state and
federal laws that protect people from unethical environmental practices.
Business owners who violate these laws may face stiff penalties. They may
also be shut down.

Financial Ethics
Business owners must run clean operations with respect to finances,
investing and expanding their companies. For example, organizations must not
also
bribe state legislators for tax credits or special privileges. Insider trading is
prohibited. Insider trading is when managers or executives illegally apprise
affecting publicly traded
investors or outside parties of privileged information
Commission. The information
stocks. according to the Securities and Exchange
returns on their investments at the
helps sorme investors achieve greater
companies must strive to help all
expense of others. Executives in small
They must also avoid collusive
shareholders earn better returns on their money.
companies to deliberately harm other competitors.
arrangements with other
 Considerations
Asmall company's organizational ethics can also include taking care of
employees with mental illnesses or substance abuse problerns, such as drug
and alcohol dependency. Ethical business owners help their employees
overcome these types of problems when possible. They often put them through
employee advisor programs, which involves getting them the treatment they
need. Employees may have issues that lead to these types of problens.
Therefore, they deserve a chance to explain their situations and get the help
they need.

Professional ethics
Professionals have knowledge about the technical domain that the
general public does not. Ethical duty of the expert to warn lay people of the risks
involved in a particular COurse of action. Many professions, or would be
professions, have codes of conduct for their members

5.7 Working in teams

work in groups.
Not all people involved in the development process like to
to work in groups and many people
> But major software projects always have
do not like to work in groups.
organization involved in the development process will have various
> Any
departments reflecting its structure. departments and
formulated based on the different
Formal groups can be
tasks carried.
groups can be formed based on specific
task towork
contain different people from different departments
Task group can
specific task.
together to carry out a activities to be carried out are
dissolved
formed for specitic
> Every task group
task is completely achieved.
once the

5.7.1Becoming a team
 Making people work together is the most difficult task that the project
manager has tocarefully handle.
º Ateam cannot perform instantly; it has to develop over time.

5.7.2 Team Formation Model

> Every team has to go through five different stages of development as
depicted in the Team Formation Model namely,
Forming
Storming
" Norming
Performing
Adjourning
> Forming: basic ground rules and general behavior are set up to try and get to
know each other in the team.
Storming: grouping methods of operation have to establish as there is a
chance of conflicts arising due to leadership.
> Norming: agroup identityemerges as the conflicts are largely settled.
> Performing: how the tasks are handled by the team.
> Adjourning: disbanding of the group.

5.7.3 Individual Characteristics

Any project team must be formed with the best mix of different personalities.
>
balanced teams based on individual
Belbin formulated the need of
characteristics of people.
at conducting meetings, must be
Chair: these people must be good
Need not be excellent leaders.
calm, strong and tolerant. giving
these people must be good at generating ideas and
Plant:
problems.
potential solution to
must be good evaluators and best inselectina
Monitor-Evaluator: they
 the most feasible solution.
Shaper. helps in directing the team's attention to important issues.
" Team worker. must be efficient in
creating a good working
environment.
Resource investigator. helps in finding resources in terms of both
physical resources and information.
Complete-finisher. people who are concerned with completing the
tasks.
Company-worker. must be good team player willing to undertake less
attractive work for team's success.
r To be agood team member, the person must be flexible, restrained, timely
and keepingthe common goals of the team in mind allthe time.

5.74 Group Performance

There is a strong question raised often: "Are groups more effective than
individuals working alone?".
} It is the responsibility of the project manager to distinguish the tasks which
are supposed to be carried out together and those tasks to be carried out by
individuals.
Some works yield better results when worked together as a team,while some
others are slowed down because of the work be compartmentalized based on
individuals.
There are four different ways of categorizing group tasks. They are:
Additive Tasks: in this the effort of every person are added to reach the

final result. People involved in additive tasks are interchangeable.

Compensatory Tasks: here, the judgements of individual group
These result in
members are taken and the results are then averaged.
efforts of individuals.
effective group work rather than the
correct solution to the
Disiunctive TaskS: these tasks have only one
a solution and everybody in the
task. Here, if someone Comes with
 " Conjurtive Tasks here, the pryes is governed ty the rate of the
sonest ertmer tere urtd e ad every pers onpletes their

opertrve atttuie fthe tean teres produIve

Armajt protlen can arise th addtve tassthat lead to social hafing
, Social loafing is aprotilern wtere one indviduals do rot miahetheir proper
conitritbution vihen carryng t goup assigmerts

58 Decision rmaking

5.8.1Categories of Decisions
structured and unstructured
} Decision marirg process can be categorized into
applied in
Structured decisions are generally sinple where the rues are
a straight-forwards way
a great
Unstructured decisions are often more complex and require
degree of creativity
The anourt of risk and the uncertainty invotved in the development process
}
can affect the decision making process.

Making
5.8.2 Obstacles to Good Decision
decision mking process are
Few factors that affect g00d
rules of thurnb or heuristics are useful but can be
Fauty heuristics: the
mere stereotypes.
misleading. These are based on made
thís happens when a wrong decision is
Escalation of commitment
altered easily later. the
which cannot be information also might lead
much of
Information overload: too
cho0se a wrong one.
decision process to

Making stakeholders
5.8.3 Group Decision specialists and point of
view of
discussions, different
In aroup
 can be brought together to
make a better decision.
Decisions made by a team can be approved and
accepted easily than
decisions imposed by individuals.
> Every group meeting takes the collective responsibility of
briefed solving complex
of having properly
problems.
ºA grOup can arrive at better
solutions for complex problems because the
members the group have complementary skills and
of
Group meetings provide an opportunity for expertise.
people to communicate freely and
easily among the members of the
group.
Often, groups are less effective for poorly
structures problems where
brainstorming techniques can be used to helps the groups to
make it
structured
} Even though, group decision making is
effective in achieving solutions, it has
been proved by research that people come up with
more ideas individually
than in groups.

5.8.4 Obstacles to Good Group Decision Making

Group decision making process has its own disadvantages:
It is time consuming process.
Conflicts can arise among the members of the group.
Decisions can be influenced by dominant personalities.
Once established the group norms can survive many changes of membership
in the group.
Experimental results have shown that people can modify their personal
judgements to conform to group norms.
risk
Sometimes people in groups take hasty decisions that can cause more
known as risky shift.
then when they make their decisions on their own

Group Decision Making

5.8.5 Measures to reduce obstacles of
efficient
decision making process to be more effective and
To make group
adopted.
the Delphi Technique can be
 Delphi
technique endeavourers to collate the of a nurnber of
oyoertswithout actually bringing judgements
thern face to face.
The set of procedures is
carried out as follows:
Cooperationof anumber of experts is enlisted
Problem is presented to the
experts.
Experts record their
Recommendations arerecommendations.
collated and are reproduced.
Collected responses are recirculated.
Experts comment on the ideas of others and
rmodity trie
recommendations.
If the leader finds any discrepancy, the process is
stopped,
otherwise it is recirculated to the experts.
This method can be adopted to geographically dispersed experts but
the
process becomes time consuming.

5.9 Team Structures

5.9.1 Department Structure
Departmentalization of organizations depends on staff specialties, product lines,
categories of customer or the geographical location.
In general, the software development process approach is referred as either
function-oriented or task-oriented.
formed based on
Function oriented approach deals with different groups that are
their functional specialization.
usage of staff both technically and in
r This approach leads to a more effective
be concerned.
ermploying the standards that are needed to
oriented approach, members are grouped together with respect to
r With the task
aspecific task.
achieved by the group and the group is dissolved
The specific task has to be
particular task.
successful completion of the
atter the life-cycle phase.
Departrmentalization is also based on
 n project sfe cycle phases there are separate teams for developrment and
maintenance
Matrix form of departmentalization can also be formed where there are two
managers namely project manager and
programming manager. The project
manager deals with the day-to-day activities while the programing manager
focusess on future career
>Egoless
development.
programming suggests that the programmers
teamleaders should read other people's programs so that and
the the programming
programs become
2common property to both

592 Team Structure

Team structure addresses the issue of
There are mainly three formal team
organization of the individual project
teams
structures
Chief programmer,
Democratic, and
The mixed control team organizations

Chief Programmer Teams

º If the number of groups is larger, then the work will be slower because of
increased communication. So large projects must be formalized and must be
represented in an centralized structure.
>One way to avoid this, to reduce the number of people and giving them more
support to make the work done which led to the formulation of chief programmer
team.

The chief programmer defines the specification, design, code, tests and
documents the entire software.
The chief programmer can have a co-pllot whocan assist in writing some code
and discussions.
An editor can be used to write up the documentation drafted by the chief
and a
programmer, along with a program clerk who maintains the actual code
 The chief programmer team is
nuch responsibility and authority issubject to single point failure since too
ince the chief assigned to the chief prograrnirner
programmer carries out
Rnger of information overload on the rmany tasks indrvidually, there is 3
chief prograrnmer
DemocraticTeam Structure
The democratic team
structure, as the name
formal team hierarchy. Decisions are taken based onimplies, does not enforce
memberis free to discuss with any other
discuSsions, where any
administrative leadership. At different
matters.Typically, a manager provides the
technicalleadership.
times,different mermbers of the group provide

Advantages:

The democratic organization leads to higher

morale and job satisfaction.
Democratic team structure is appropriate for less understood
problems,
since a group of engineers can invent better solutions than a
single
individual as in achief programmer team.
Ademocratic team structure is suitable for projects requiring less
than
five or six engineers and for research-oriented projects. For large sized
projects, apure democratic organization tends to become chaotic.
The democratic team organization encourages egoless programming
as

programmers can share and reviewone another's work.

Disadvantages:
Consequently, it suffers from less man-power turnover
4Control Team Structure
draws upon the ideas
e mixed team organization, as the name implies,
 tester whovalidates the code.
The disadvantage of chief programmer teams is that the chief programmer is
Overloaded with lots of information and cannot manage at some point of time.
Extreme programming concept can overcone this disadvantage where the
software is developed by pairs of developers with a chief programmer / co-pilot
relationship.

Chief programmer

Team Members

In this team organization, a senior engineer provides the technical

leadership and is designated as the chief prOgrammer.
The chief programmer partitionsthe task into small activities and assigns
them to the team members.
He also verifies and integrates the products developed by
different team
members.

Advantages
The chief programmer provides an authority, and this
structure is arguably
more efficient than the democraticteam for
well-understood problems.
However, the chief programmer team leads to lower team morale, since
team-members work under the constant supervision of the chiet
programmer.
This also inhibits collective and their original
thinking.
 from both the democratic organization and the
chief prograrrime
organization. This team organization incorporates both hierarchical
reporting and democratic set up.
The democratic connections are shown as
dashed lines and the reporting
structure is shown using solid arrows.
The mixed control team
organization is suitable forlarge tearn sizes.
The democratic arrangement at the
senior engineer's level is Used tO
decomposethe problem into small parts. Each democratic setup at the
programmer level attempts solution to a single part. Thus, this
organization is eminently tearn
suited to handle large and
complex programs.
This team structure is extremely popular and is being used in many
development companies. software

5.10 Virtual Teams

A
Virtual Team - also known as a
Geographically Dispersed Team (GDT) - is a
group of individuals who work across time,
space, and organizational boundaries with
links strengthened by webs of
communication technology. They have complernentary
skills and are committed to a common
purpose, have interdependent performance
goals, and share an approach to work for
which they hold themselves mutually
accountable. Geographically dispersed teams allow
best people regardless of location. A
organizations to hire and retain the
virtual team does not always mean
Teleworkers are defined as individuals who work from home. teleworkers.
Many virtual teams in
today'sorganizations consist of employees both working at home and small groups in
the office but in different geographic
locations.
Why Virtual Teams?
Best employees may be located anywhere in the world.
Workers demand personal flexibility.
 Workers demand increasing technological sophistication.
A
flexible organization is more competitive and responsive to the
marketplace.
Workers tendto be more productive -less commuting and travel time.
The
The
increasing globalization of trade and corporate activity.
global workday is 24 vs. 8
The hours.
emmergenceas well environments
COoperation
of
as
which require
inter-organizational
competition.
Changes in workers' expectations
A of organizational
participation.
continued shift from production to
service/knowledge work environments.
5.11
Incr
dnde asing horizontal lorganization structures
geographically distributed human resources.characterized by structurally
Communication genres
A
major
time and place.influence on the nature of
Modes of communication genres is the
constraints
time/Differentcommunication
of
Opposite: Same can be
time and Same categor0zed combinations of two
as

Same Place
Place/Different
Place.
Same Time Different Place
Meetings, Interviews
Different Time Notice Boards Telephone, Instant Messaging
E-mail, Voice mail,
The nature of the
information to be
Documents
o What is conveyed:
the extent and
complexity of the information to be
0 ls it
Aphone
conversation if
message is simple
conveyed?
easyto
understand? Is the context well known to both the
and the recipient?
sender
Twoway communication
 o Where the communicationis personally sensitive
Face-to-face contacts
At different stages of a project - different communication genres will be preferred

Early stages - meeting(s)

Team members need tobuild up their trust and confidence in their
co-Workers
Decision making
Intermediate stages (design) - teleconferencing
Activities executed in parallel
Some points needs to be clarified
Implementation stages -emails
Everyone knows his role, work can progress

5.12 Communication plans

Acommunications plan, in project management, is a policy-driven approach to
providing stakeholders with information about a project. The plan formally defines who
should be given specific information, when that information should be delivered and
what communicationchannels will be used to deliver the information.

An effective communications management plan anticipates what information

will need to be communicated to specific audience segments. The plan should also
address who has the authority to communicate confidential or sensitive information
and howinformation should be disseminated (email, web sites, printed reports, and/or
presentations). Finally, the plan should define what communication channels
stakeholders should use to provide feedback and how communication documentation
will be archived as part of the project records.

In some organizations the communications management plan may also include

aglossary of common project terminology that will be used within the project. This
glossary may define and include sanples of templates, reports and forms that the
project manager willuse to communicate information.

Tne result of the communication process could be documented in a table with

the
followingcolumn headings.

What - This contains the name ofa particular

communication event
Who/target - The target audience for the communication
Purpose -What the communication is to achieve
When/frequency - If the communication by means of a single event, then a
specific date can be supplied. If the event is a recurring one, such as a
meeting, then the frequency should be indicated progress
Type/method - The nature of the communication, for example a meeting or a
distributed document
Responsibility - The person who initiates the communication
5.13 Leadership
Leadership means the ability to influence others in a group to act in a
particular way to achieve group goals.
> A leader need not be a very good
manager or vice-versa since managers have
different roles such s organizing, planning and
> It is very difficult to list the common
controlling.
characteristics of good leaders.
> But every leader have a greater
need for power and achievement and must
have more self-controland self-confidence than
others.
> Leadership is generally based on the
idea of authority
or power.
5.13.1 Positional Leadership Power
> Power can take the form
based on the position of the person,
power can be analyzed as:
Positional
Coercive power: ability to force someone to do
something by
threateningpunishment.
Connection power: based on having access to those who have power,
leqidi nale Poser
Resord fower peial stalus
hor the thotde gives sedad