SSM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KOMARAPALAYAM 638 183

DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

TC 3601 TEXTILE FINISHING
III Yr / VI Semester – R 2021
 REGULATION 2021 – SYLLABUS

TC 3601 TEXTILE FINISHING LTPC

3 00 3

UNIT I RESINE FINISHING

Commercial importance of finishing and its classification. Resin finishing: Mechanism of creasing,
Types of Resins. Anti crease, wash and wear, durable press resin finishing. Causes & remedies of
strength losses of Resin finished fabric. Mechanism of Chlorine retention. Formaldehyde Release
from Resin finished goods. Study about eco friendly method of anti crease finishing. Polycarboxilic
acids for crease recovery finish.

UNIT II FLAME PROOF&WATERPROOF

Concept of Flame proof & flame retardancy. Concept of pyrolysis, Flame retardant finishes for
cotton. Concept of waterproof and water repellent Finishes, Durable & Semi durable and Temporary
finishes, Antimicrobial finish -Evaluation of anti microbial finish, Elastomeric finishes and
Evaluation

UNIT III SOIL RELEASE AND ANTISTATIC FINISHES

Soil Release Finishing: Mechanism of soil retention & soil release. Various soil releases finishes for
cotton, Polyester and its blends -Evaluation, Anti pilling Finishing: chemical and mechanical methods
to produce anti pilling finish - Evaluation, UV Protection finishes - Evaluation. Detail study of
antistatic finishes and Evaluation

UNIT IV MECHANICAL FINISHES

Mechanical finishing of textile materials like calendaring, compacting, raising, Sanforising, Peach
finishing. Object of Heat setting. Various methods of heat setting and mechanism of heat setting.
Foam Finishing:. Techniques of foam application. Drawbacks of foam finishing.

UNIT V NANO FINISH, PLASMA TREATMENT

Stiffening and softening of textile materials, Mechanism in the weight reduction of PET by using
alkali Micro encapsulation techniques in finishing process, Nano finish, Self cleaning finish. Plasma
Treatment. Bio finishing,Coating and laminating.

TEXTBOOKS
1. V.A.Shennai, Technology of Finishing, Vol X, Sevak Publications, Mumbai
2. Perkins, W.S., “Textile colouration and finishing”, Carolina Academic Press., U.K, ISBN:
0890898855.2004

REFERENCES
1.Microencapsulation in finishing, Review of progress of Colouration, SDC, 2001
2.Chakraborty, J.N, Fundamentals and Practices in colouration of Textiles, WoodheadPublishing
India, 2009, ISBN-13:978-81-908001-4-3
3.W. D. Schindler and P. J. Hauser Chemical finishing of textiles, Woodhead Publishing Cambridge
England,2004
 CONTENTS

TOPIC NO TOPIC PAGE NO

UNIT I
1.1 Commercial importance of finishing 1
1.2 Classification 2
1.3 Resin finishing 5
1.3.1 Mechanism of creasing 6
1.3.2 Types of Resins 8
1.3.3 Anti Crease
1.3.4 Wash and Wear 12
1.3.5 Durable press finish 13
1.3.6 Causes & remedies of strength losses of Resin finished fabric. 18
1.4 Mechanism of Chlorine retention 21
1.5 Formaldehyde Release from Resin finished goods 22
1.6 Study about eco friendly method of anti crease finishing 28
1.7 Polycarboxilic acids for crease recovery finish 29

UNIT II
2.1 Concept of Flame proof & flame retardancy 32
2.2 Concept of pyrolysis 33
2.3 Flame retardant finishes for cotton 38
2.3.1 Durable Finish 39
2.3.2 Non Durable Finish 42
2.4 Concept of waterproof and water repellent Finishes 42
2.4.1 Evaluation of waterproof and water repellent Finishes 54
2.5 Antimicrobial finishes 56
2.5.1 Evaluation of Anti Microbial Finish 60
2.6 Elastomeric finishes or Silicon Finishing or Softening
2.6.1 Evaluation

UNIT III
3.1 Soil Release Finishing 62
3.2 Mechanism of soil retention & soil release 64
3.3 Soil Release Finishing for Various Materials 67
3.3.1 Cotton
3.3.2 Polyester
3.3.3 Blends (P/C)
3.3.4 Evaluation of Soil Release Finishing 71
3.4 Anti pilling Finishing 73
3.4.1 Physical and Chemical Methods of finishing 76
3.4.2 Evaluation of Anti Pilling Finish 79
3.5 UV Protection Finish 80
3.5.1 Evaluation 85
3.6 Anti Static Finish 85
3.6.1 Evaluation 89
 UNIT IV
4.1 Mechanical Finishing 91
4.1.1 Calendaring 92
4.1.2 Compacting 94
4.1.3 Raising 96
4.1.4 Sanforising 97
4.1.5 Peach finishing or Sueding 99
4.2 Heat Setting 101
4.2.1 Various objects
4.2.2 Various Methods
4.2.3 Mechanism of Heat Setting 102
4.3 Foam Finishing 107
4.3.1 Various Applications 111
4.3.2 Drawbacks of Foam finishing 115

UNIT V
5.1 Stiffening of textile materials 116
5.2 Softening of textile materials 121
5.3 Weight reduction of PET 127
5.4 Micro Encapsulation 129
5.5 Nano Finish 132
5.5.1 Self cleaning Finish 134
5.6 Plasma Treatment 141
5.7 Bio Finishing 146
5.7.1 Bio Polishing 147
5.7.2 Bio Singing 149
5.7.3 Bio Stoning 149
5.7.4 Bio Softening 149
 UNIT-I
1.1 INTRODUCTION & IMPORTANCE OF FINISHING
The ultimate aim of a finishing process is to develop and or modify the fibres or finishes for
conventional synthetic fibres so that they give the comfort of natural fibres , the richness of animal
fibres , and all the advantages of synthetic fibres – durability , plasticity , attractive appearance , wash
and wear characteristic and so on ,
A finishing process in which a desired quality or qualities are imparted to fabric in order to
improve the appearance, to affect stiffness, weight, elasticity, or softness, to facilitate care, or to protect
the wearer. Examples include calendaring, durable press finishing, water and oil repellency, and
softening.
As the name implies, it is the last step or the process in the method of conversion of fiber into
fabric which is in the marketable or useable form. After finishing only the steps of inspection and
packing are left to make the fabric ready for shipment or marketing.

Finishing of Synthetic fibres and their blends quite different from finishing natural and animal fibres.
REASON: hydrophobic nature –have low moisture content.

Problems of low moisture content

 Synthetic fibres accumulate static electricity and attract soil from the atmosphere; the removal of
the soil during aqueous laundering is difficult.
 These fibres are uncomfortable to wear in humid weather
i) pilling during wear
ii) very serious flammability problem
 The application of finishes from aqueous liquors becomes difficult.
Synthetic fibres are stronger and tougher and their fine structure is more compact than natural
fibres.There fore they may need drastic temperature and time conditions to impart a finishing effect.
Advantage can be taken of their thermoplastic nature to permanently impart dimensional stability,
Crease resistance and pleating.

Finishes on synthetic fibres can be broadly divided into two types

A) A finishing agent incorporated into the polymer prior to the spinning
B) A finishing agent applied to the filaments after spinning

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 C) Many times modification in the fibre material during polymerization gives the desired
effect-
Finishing is one of the essential processes of a processing mill where all bleached, dyed and printed
material are subjected before they are put on the market.
The aim of the textile finishing is to render (provide or turn to) textile goods fit for their end uses.

Objectives:

 To impart the fabric a particular property as demanded by the customer or by the inherent
nature of the fabric.
 To add extra property for the value addition to the fabric in addition to the properties demanded
by the customer.
 To improve the attraction or appearance of the fabric irrespective of the customer requirement

Finishing gives the following advantages:

1. improved appearance – luster ,whiteness etc.,
2. improved feel which depends on the handle of the fabric and its softness, suppleness, fullness
etc.,
3. It improves the wearing qualities – Non soiling anticrease.
4. It gives special properties required for particulars uses – water proofing, Flame proofing etc.,
5. It covers the faults of the original cloth
6. It increases the weight of the fabric
7. It increases the sale value of the material.
8. It improves the natural attractiveness of the fabric.
9. It improves the serviceability of the fabric.
Hence finishing is essential for a textile good before they are put on the market.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHING

Finishing is commonly divided into two categories,

• Chemical
• Mechanical.

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Chemical finishing
In chemical finishing, water is used as the medium for applying the Chemicals.
Heat is used to drive off the water and to activate the chemicals.
 Resin treatment
 Softener treatment
 Powder Coating
 Soil/Stain Resist
 Fire/Flame retarding
 Special Purpose
Mechanical finishing
It is considered a dry operation even though moisture and chemicals are often needed to successfully
process the fabric. Calendaring
 Pitching/Raising
 Sanforising
 Heat setting

TYPE OF FINISH
Finishing mainly falls into three groups;
1. Temporary finish
2. Permanent finish
3. Semi-permanent finish

Temporary finish
A finish which is not stable and goes off after the first wash is known as TEMPORARY FINISH.
If the finishing effect in the fabric disappears during subsequent washing and usage then it is called
Temporary finish.
E.g. Mechanical: Calendaring, embossing etc,
Chemical : Starching Softening (Except Reactive softeners)

Permanent finish

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 If the finishing effect in the fabric does not disappear and remains unaffected through all the
conditions of wear and washing treatments, then the finish is said to be a permanent finish.
E.g.; Mechanical: Sanforising, Mechanical milling of wool etc,
Chemical : Resin finishing, Water proof, Flame proof finish etc,

Semi permanent finish

A finishing on the fabric is said to be semi permanent finish if it is stable to more than 5 to 10
washes and not afterwards.
E.g. Mechanical: schreiner Calendaring
Chemical : Buckram finish

TEXTILE FINISHING

CHEMICAL MECHANICAL

REACTIVE TYPE DEPOSITION TEMPORARY PERMANENT

OF FINISH TYPE OF FINISH E.g. Calendaring Eg.Raising,
Sanforising
Parchementising TEMPORARY PERMANENT Milling
(Stiff& Transparent) Starch E.g., Synthetic resin
Chlorination of wool China clay (Crease resistance, Wash
(Antishrink) (Stiff) & wear Durable press)
Mercerizing Oils, Fats & China clay (Stiff)
Velan Pf waxes (soft) Rubber coating
(Flame retardant) Optical (water proof)
Ethylene oxide- brightening Cellulose Acetate
Formaldehyde cellulose ether (stiff)
(Soil release)
Phosphorous&
Nitrogen compounds
(Flame retardant)
All are permanent

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1.3 RESIN FINISHING
Cotton is mainly selected for apparel purpose because of its durability, ability to withstand the
rough laundering treatments especially under alkaline conditions, good perspiration absorption
characteristics, and comfort during wear and ability to take up a wide range of dyestuffs. However,
proneness to creasing under slight crushing and retention of the crease for a long time give cotton
garments a poor rating during actual wear.
 The ability of a fabric to resist the formation of crease or wrinkle when slightly squeezed is
termed as crease resistance.
 The ability of a fabric to recover to a definite degree is called crease recovery of the fabric.
To overcome the creasing problem and to develop wrinkle - resistant properties in cotton fabrics,
attempts were made to interlink the adjacent –OH cellulose molecules using a cross linking agents. The
introduction of cross links imparts dimensional stability and elasticity to the fabric and makes it crease
resistant and crease recoverable. So this finish is referred as Anti-crease or Anti-crush or Crease resistant
or crease recovery finish.
The most commonly used cross linking agents are nothing but Resins. The resins react with the –OH
groups of cellulose forming cross links which is durable and increase the crease recovery thereby
dimensional stability of the fabric. so it is also called as resin finishing,

Resin finishing quite often called

• Wash & Wear Finish
• Anti Crease Finish
• Crease Resistant Finish
• Durable Press Finish
• Wrinkle Free Finish

Objective
The main objective of resin finish
 Keep the fabric flat and smooth
 Free from undesirable creases
Advantages
1. It improves the Crease Resistance and Crease Recovery property
2. It reduces the shrinkage of the fabric during laundering
3. It imparts a smooth and quick drying property
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 4. It improves Resilience, Handle and Draping quality
5. It improves the weight and Dimensional stability
6. It increases the strength of RAYONS in both wet and dry state
7. It gives resistance to degradation by light and laundering
8. It improves the fastness to Light and Washing of many dyestuffs
9. It prevents the Inter molecular slippage in the fibre core
10. It becomes partially water proof and Rot proof
Disadvantages
1. It decreases the Tensile strength and Tear strength
2. It decreases the Abrasion resistance
3. It gives an unpleasant odor
4. It gives unwanted Harsh and Stiff feel
5. It turns the fabric yellow after chlorine bleaching
Incorporation of proper softener and catalyst in the pad bath reduce the loss in the above mentioned
properties of the fabric.

1.3.1 MECHANISM OF CREASING

A cellulose molecule consists of crystalline and amorphous regions bound by hydrogen bonds
with links with hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl groups in the amorphous regions are far apart and remain
unbound, When a cotton cloth is folded and pressed, some of the hydrogen bonds at the boundary of the
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amphorous and crystalline regions break as such bonds are fairly weak at the same time free hydroxyl
groups in the amorphous regions approach other free hydroxyl groups and when they come close to each
other they get bound again by hydrogen bonds. These newly formed hydrogen bonds prevent unfolding
of the cloth. But when it is unfolded and ironed with a hot iron the newly formed hydrogen bonds break
and the cloth regains its earlier state and the crease disappears.

WHY COTTON FORMS CREASES?

 Elastic materials like rubber and rigid materials like metals do not form creases.
Cotton is not
* RIGID and therefore bends and the deformation results in as CREASE
* ELASTIC and therefore can not regain its original shape and position after deformation.
* It is clear that when a load is applied on cotton material, since it is not rigid will bend and deformation
that takes
place results in as CREASE and since cotton is not a elastic material it can not regain its original
shape and position
and hence the deformation that resulted remains as SET CREASE.
Reasons for some fabrics wrinkle and others don't?
It reveals a relationship between moisture absorption and wrinkling.Wool and cotton fabrics wrinkle,
both fibers absorb water. Polyester and nylon fabrics are more resistive to wrinkling; they absorb much
less than the other two.
To understand wrinkling of cellulose fibers, consider the stress and strain forces within the cellulosic
chain.
The stretching stresses at the outer reaches of the bend provide lateral forces to adjacent polymer
chains which can cause them to move.

MECHANISM OF RESIN FINISHING

If cotton is to be made crease resistant the hydrogen bond-forming capacity of the hydroxyl
groups should either be blocked or removed.
The other method of minimizing the formation of creases, involves the reaction of the –OH
groups of adjacent cellulose macromolecules with some cross linking agents. The introduction of cross-
links imparts dimensional stability and elasticity to the fibrous material and makes it crease resistant and
crease recoverable.

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 Most commonly used cross linking agents are nothing but resins .The resins react with the –OH
groups of cellulose forming crosslink’s which is durable and hence increases the crease recovery thereby
dimensional stability of the fabric.

1.3.2 TYPES OF RESINS

Resins mainly fall into two groups

 Deposition type of resins
 Cross linking type of resins

Deposition type of resins

This type of resins is deposited on the fabric as surface coating. No reaction will take place
between the fibre and resin. They include
 Phenol-Formaldehyde resins
 Urea formaldehyde resin
 Alkyd resins
 Ketone resins
 Vinyl resins
Among this vinyl resins are mostly used. The resin mentioned i, ii, iii are condensation products. The
others are formed by polymerization

Application: These are applied in soluble form on the surface of the cotton fabric using padding
mangles with an Acid catalyst.
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 If DMU is padded and dried on cotton, then is called deposition type of resin but after drying if
curing is carried out then it is called cross linking type resin.
Advantage & Disadvantage:
1. Some extent of crease resistance which is lower than cross linking type.
2. stiffness to the fabric
Cross linking type of resins
These types of resins chemically react with the fibre and cross link the fibre molecules. The type
of finish obtained is durable and much better than deposition type. They are also known as N – Methylol
compounds as the Methylol groups (-CH2 OH) are attached to the nitrogen. The cross linking
compounds are commonly called resins, but the term pre condensate is correct. The pre condensates
further polymerize to form resins.

The following are some of the cross liking agents mostly used for crease resistant finishing.
1. DMU (Dimethylol Urea )
2. DMEU (Dimethylol Ethylene Urea)
3. DMDHEU (Dimethylol Dihydroxy Ethylene Urea)
4. Dimethylol ethyl carbamate
5. DMPU (Dimethylol Propylene Urea)
6. TMM ( Trimethylol melamine/ Melamine formaldehyde)

DMU (DimethylolUrea)
-Reaction takes place under acid catalyst like
DAP, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium
chloride.

- Raw material-Urea & formaldehyde -while using ammonium nitrate &

-colourless mobile liquid ammonium chloride , curing can be done at

- miscible with water 1200C-because of low pad liquor stability

- DAP – cured at 1500C, has better stability

DMEU (DimethylolEthyleneUrea)

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 -compatible with other additivies
-Good storage stability( up to 1 year)
-Have a pH of 7-7.5
-Low free formaldehyde content
- absence of NH group – no chlorine
DMEU
retention
- raw material – Ethylene urea &
-Catalyst- Zinc nitrate, magnesium chloride,
formaldehyde
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate,
-available in clear pale yellow liquids
diammonium hydrogen phosphate.
-easily miscible with water.
-Zinc nitrate – use acetic acid to prevent
formation of zinc salt precipitation

DMDHEU ( Dimethylol dihydroxy ethylene Urea)

N- Methylol are more reactive than other 2
hrdroxy groups.
- Low free formaldehyde content.
-available in clear pale yellow to water white
liquids
- Raw material – Glyxol + -easily miscible with water
urea=dihydroxyethylene -compatible with other additivies
urea(DHEU).DHEU & formaldehyde= -Good storage stability( up to 1 year)
DMDHEU. -In presence of silicone eulsion, it will give
- have 4 OH groups, capable to react partial water repellency.
with cellulose. -Magnesium chloride hexa hydrate, Zinc
chloride & nitrate, DAP, ammonium nitrate are
recommended catalyst.
- NO chlorine retention

Method of Resin finishing

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 PAD ® DRY ® CURE
Padding
 at room temperature
 75-80% Wet Pick Up
Drying
 temperature - 100-110C
Curing
 150C for 3 min

The application of resin consist of the following steps

1. Impregnation of fabric in pre condensate solution

The concentrated solution of resin pre condensate is diluted depending on the type of fabric and
acid catalyst and other additives such as softener and PE emulsion are added. The fabric is added by
using either two or three bowl mangle with an expression of about 80%. After padding the fabric is dried
in stenter with minimum tension at 70 - 80°C.

2. Curing of Impregnated Material

After drying, the fabric is cured by using a polymeriser at 150°C for 2-5 min. Both cross linking
and Polymerization takes place during curing process.

3. Washing and soaping

After curing the fabric should be washed thoroughly. The purpose of the washing process is to
neutralize any uncombined reagent which causes undesirable effect. The fabric may be washed with 1-2
gpl of anionic wetting agent and 2-4 gpl of soda ash at 50-60°C for 10 mins.

4. Softening and drying

After washing the fabric is rinsed in water containing softening agent. Then finally it is stentered
to dry and to get even width of fabric.

Padding liquor consists of 60- 250 gpl of resin, a catalyst to an amount of 1/10th of the resin
amount, Poly Ethylene Emulsion 20-25 gpl , Silicone Emulsion 20-30 gpl, acetic Acid 1 gpl along with
5-10 gpl of Anti Static agent if PES component is present along with the Cellulosic fibre under finish.
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Resin Amount
The content of Resin in the padding bath varies in between 60-250 gpl based on the type of finish
applied to the fabric.
 Generally 60 -100 gpl is known as Resin finishing, and
 125-150 gpl is known as Wash & Wear Finish.
 If the resin amounts are in the range of 200 gpl and above the finish is known as Durable Press
finish.

Recipe for Resin finish

DMDHEU - 70 Gpl
Catalyst - 7 Gpl
Silicone Emulsion - 10 Gpl
P. E - 10 Gpl
Acetic acid - 1 Gpl
Anti Stat* - 1 Gpl

1.3.4 WASH & WEAR FINISH

This finish imparts crease recovery only and suitable where pressed in creases are not required.
This kind of finish is not suitable where pressed in creases are required or where formation of sharp
creases are hindered during ironing. Inserted creases on this fabric disappear quickly during wear and
the garment looks shabby.

Recipe
DMDHEU - 125 Gpl
Catalyst - 15 Gpl
Silicone Emulsion - 15 Gpl
P. E - 15 Gpl
Acetic acid - 1 Gpl
Anti Stat* - 1 Gpl

1.3.5 DURABLE PRESS FINISHING

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 Garments shrink in the washer can be improved by properly applying durable press finishes. This
is a further development of wash and wears finish. For sharp retention of pressed in creases and
freedoms from ironing the fabrics, the garments require durable press finish. DMDHEU is the resin
which used for this finishing.

Recipe
DMDHEU - 225 Gpl
Catalyst - 25 Gpl
Silicone Emulsion - 25 Gpl
P. E - 25 Gpl
Acetic acid - 1 Gpl
Anti Stat* - 1 Gpl

*anti stat to be added only when pes is present in case of blends

Process sequence
Pad-dry-Cut and make garments- Insert creases or Pleats by Hot pressing –Cure – Wash – Hot rinse
_Cold rinse –Dry
(Or)
Make garments – treat with resin – Hydro extract – press and form creases, pleats with hot iron –Dry –
Cure wash –Hot rinse-Cold rinse – Dry.

Essential requirement of different finishing types (durable and wash & wear)
1. Muss Resistance (Wrinkle Resistance).
 The fabric must not wrinkle when a garment is worn.
 Wrinkling performance can be expressed in Crease Recovery terms.
 Crease Recovery Angle (CRA) AATCC Test Method 66-1984 are used to measure crease
resistance or crease recovery.

2. So-Iron (DP Rating).

 Fabric must have a smooth appearance after it is laundered dried (line dried or tumble dried).
 Fabric smoothness is referred to as Durable Press Rating (DP Rating) and is judged on a1 to 5
scale.
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  A 5 DP rating is the highest (most smooth) and a 1 is the most wrinkled.
 A 3.5 rating is considered commercially acceptable.

3. Low Residual Shrinkage: Fabric must shrink less than 2 % when laundered.

4. Permanent Press.
 Garment shape is maintained during wearing and washing.
 Creases must be sharp, flat areas must be smooth.
 Creases are rated on a 1 to 5 scale.
 A 5 rating is perfect.

5. Delay Cure: A process where the curing step is delayed until the garment has been made and
pressed.

6. Precure: A process where the curing is done at the finishing plant in the flat state.

Catalysts
 The catalysts mainly are Acid liberating agents which liberate the required acid by
decomposition during curing process and thus maintain the pH.
 The pH required for resin to form cross links is achieved during the curing stage through the
Catalyst.
 The reaction of N-CH2OH with cellulose is acid catalyzed.
 The stronger the acid the faster the reaction.
 Selecting the proper catalyst becomes important because acids also damage cellulose fibers. Here
too the stronger the acid, the greater the damage.
 Since some reactants are less reactive than others, there are times when stronger catalysts are
needed to achieve proper curing.
 Maximizing cross linking while keeping acid hydrolysis to a minimum is tricky.
various catalysts,
 Magnesium Chloride,
 Sodium Hypophosphite
 Sodium Phosphate
 Reactive Silicones
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  Liquid Ammonia
 Di-Sodium Hydrogen Phosphate,
 Di-Sodium Di-Hydrogen Phosphate, etc are popular.
For commercial purposes Magnesium Chloride is only used from the cost point of view.

Sodium Hypophosphite
 The hypophosphite is a reducing agent.
 The most effective catalyst for promoting Durable Press properties.
 DP rating and shrinkage control equivalent to DMDHEU have been obtained.

Catalyst is expensive higher than normal amounts are needed.

This is beneficial for maintaining white fabrics, however, it discolors certain dyes especially sulfurs.

Sodium Phosphate
 Much less expensive than hypophosphite
 Does not affect dye shade.

Not as effective in promoting DP ratings.

Requires higher temperature cure.
Discolors whites at higher temperatures.

Reactive Silicones
 Elastomeric, amino functional and epoxy functional silicones will give a modest
Boost to DP performance.
 The elastomeric silicones add resiliency to the fabric improving wrinkle recovery.
 The amino and epoxy functional improve fiber and yarn slippage, reducing the transmission of
the wrinkling force to the fiber.Also wrinkles will fall out easier.
Liquid Ammonia
 Ammonia (NH3) is a liquid a t - 180 C. It will cause cellulosic fibers to swell and bring about
some of the changes associated with Mercerizing.
 Although the performance does not rival conventional resin treatment, a process using anhydrous
liquid ammonia (Sanforset) has been commercialized for stabilizing Denim fabrics.
 As a fabric treatment, it will remove stresses and strains and stabilize the fabric.
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  When done properly, cotton fabrics will have somewhat improved DP ratings and improved
residual shrinkage.
 Smooth drying ratings and reduced residual shrinkage were improved without losses in strength
and abrasion resistance. .
 Cotton shirting fabric was passed through the liquid ammonia process and then topped with a
low level of DMDHEU. The DP performance was higher than if the resin had been used alone.
 The losses in strength and abrasion were minimized by the low level resin treatment.

The improvement was not to the level one would expect of durable press but enough to warrant the
expense

Polyethylene Emulsion
 Poly Ethylene Emulsion is used to counter the side effects of resin.
 PE applied will minimize the losses in TS, Breaking Load at Elongation.

Silicone Emulsion
 Silcone Emulsion is used to counter the unnecessary stiffness that is seen on the fabric.
 It used in the padding bath acts as a Softener bringing Softness.

Silicone emulsions, even though the ultimate choice do not produce the same degree of softness as
that of Cationics, on the contrary, cationics do not show any effect on Synthetics, and Silicones
reduces the absorbency.

Acetic Acid:
Acetic acid is used to keep the pH of the padding bath at 5-6, since it is the desired pH for the
application of Polyethylene and Silicone Emulsions.

Application Methods
The major application methods currently used are based on
• Pre-Cure,
• Post-Cure,
• Garment-Dip-Spray ( Metered) application and

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 • Vapour phase methods.
In Pre-Cure method
• The fabric is treated with resin, dried, and cured in flat open width form.
• These fabrics can be used to produce garments that resists wrinkle during wearing and
will have a smooth appearance after washing and tumble drying.
• The method of application finds good in women’s wear market for skirts, causual trousers
and shirtings where smoothness is of utmost importance.

However, it will not be possible to introduce sharp durable press creases, as the cured fabric will resist
any attempt to press in creases.

In post-Cure method
• The resin is applied as in pre-cure method and dried at low temperature.
• The fabric is converted into garment and creases pressed into the garment widely known
as DP finish.

This process has its limitations and unsuccessful with garment manufactures owing to obvious
reasons, colours and styles, fabric weight, and co-ordination between mills and garment
manufacturers.

In garment dip method,

• Garments are impregnated in resin bath and extracted to about 65% wet pick up and then
tumble dried to 8-10% moisture, a critical factor to be controlled by the processor.

In spray method,
• Resin is applied by spraying onto the garments during tumbling in an enclosed rotational
machine.
• A micro processor is used to meter the exact amount of spray resin and to control
the rotations and rotational time, wet pick up, spray rate and total process time.
The garments are then pressed and cured.
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 • This process is gaining importance and is actually being practiced with the market
moving towards washed down looks and soft handles.

Vapour Phase Method

• In vapour phase process the fabric is dyed/printed and finished at mil, cut sewn and
pressed into garment form before cross linking.
• Gaseous formaldehyde along with an acid catalyst is applied together in a special
chamber oven.
•
• The garments are later steamed to induce cross linking.
When the whole world is looking at free formaldehyde process this process for obvious reasons has its
own disadvantage, apart from cumber some processing and process control keys involved.

1.3.6 CAUSES & REMEDIES OF STRENGTH LOSSES OF RESIN FINISHED

FABRIC

Crease recovery values decreased to that of untreated fabric, when a little quantity of resins was
removed, though large quantity of resins still remained in the fabrics. This is because of cross linking
between resin and cellulose molecule. Less cross linking will give less crease recovery. Tensile strength
changes approximately corresponding to the change of crease recovery. Decrease of tensile strength is
caused by the formation of intermolecular cross linking.
Tear and Tensile Resistance
An overwhelming majority of durable press finishing agents used today are formaldehyde based
reagents, such as dimethyloldihydroxyethyleneurea (DMDHEU) and modified DMDHEU, with
magnesium chloride as a catalyst.
The following summarises some of the important aspects so far:
1. The catalysts used for DMDHEU systems, such as magnesium chloride, cause degradation of
cellulose, thus reducing the tensile and tear strength of cotton fabric. The magnitude of fabric strength
loss is affected by temperature, time, and concentration of the catalyst. Fabric strength loss also depends
on both the cation and anion of the catalyst. An activated catalyst system, which includes an organic
acid, causes more severe fabric tensile strength loss.

18
2. Tensile strength loss of cotton fabric treated with DMDHEU is due to both the cross-linking of
cellulose and the degradation of cellulose caused by the catalyst. Because a catalyst system plays such
an important role in influencing the strength loss of cotton fabrics cross-linked by DMDHEU, the
selection of the catalyst system and its concentration is crucial for optimising the tensile strength
retention of the finished fabrics.
3. DMDHEU can be removed from the finished fabric by using an alkali treatment, as evidenced by the
decrease in wrinkle recovery angle with removal. The fabric strength gradually increases as the
hydrolysis of the cross-linked fabric progresses, indicating that the fabric strength loss due to cross-
linking the cellulose molecules is reversible and that it can be restored by removing the cross-links. The
remainder of the strength loss, which has been described as being due to acid-induced de-
polymerisation, is permanent and is not reversible upon hydrolysis of the cross-links.
Points to Consider
1. Losses in physical properties due to rigidification of the fiber are unavoidable. Losses in strength due
to cross-links can be recovered by a mild acid strip. Boiling for one hour in 1% phosphoric acid buffered
with urea will remove almost all cross-links and restore about 70% of the lost strength.
2. Catalyst damage also lead to losses in physical properties. That portion of the loss not recovered by
the acid strip was the damage of the cellulose backbone by the catalyst. Ways to minimize this damage
is to avoid overly strong catalyst and to avoid over curing.
3. Tensile strength is directly proportional to fiber damage. Tearing strength. however, is affected by
fiber damage and fabric stiffness. Stiff fabrics tear more easily than softer ones even if the fiber strength
is not lowered.
4. From a practical point of view, the exact formulation and application conditions are determined by
trial and error, first at a laboratory scale and finally under production conditions.
5. Commercially functional 100% cotton fabrics with improved DP performance can be produced by
carefully balancing all of the variables.
6. In those cases where the finished fabric is too weak to function in its intended end-use, serviceable
fabrics can still be made by re-engineering the greige fabric with the loss in physical properties in mind.
This might include over-constructing the 100% cotton fabric or to blend in yarn strengthening fibers
such as polyester or nylon.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CRA

1. Resin concentration :
As the concentration of resin increases in the pad bath the CRA of the resultant product increases.
19
 2. Pick Up :
As the pick of the resin increases, in other words as the amount of resin DEPOSITED on the fabric
increases the CRA of the resultant fabric increases. Recent studies shows the deposited resin is
directly co-related to CRA, yellowening, TS, Abrasion resistance etc.

3. Catalyst :
• The catalyst produces the right pH during the curing stage enabling the resin to from
cross links.In other words the % of fixed resin depends on the type of catalyst used.
• The number of cross links the resin forms varies with type of catalyst used and a
particular resin yields the best fixation only with a specific catalyst.

However, simplifying the finisher’s problem, the present manufacturers are supplying resins with
built in catalyst and can be applied directly; wherein the manufacturer himself has taken care of the
suitability and efficiency of the catalyst w.r.t. fixed resin content.
It is also important to note that higher acidity brings out acidic hydrolysis and the covalent
bonds formed as a result of cross linking will be broken resulting in increased unfixed resin and
consequently the total cost, load on ETP, and yellowening increases with the net result of lower CRA’s.

Common catalysts for Pad-Dry-Cure and Flash-Cure Finishing Processes are:

1. Ammonium salts: eg-NH4CL(Ammonium Chloride)
2. Amine salts: eg-HOCH2CH2NH2.HCL
3. Organic acids: eg-HOCH2COOH (Per Acetic acid)
4. Metalic salts: eg-MgCL2(Magnesium Chloride)
5. Dual and complex catalyst system :eg-MgCL2 + NaBF4(Tetra
fluoro sodium bromide.

4.Curing
• The curing temperature and time of curing has a definite effect on the % of fixed resin
and as the temperature, and time of curing increases the % of fixed resin content
increases

20
 • The best results are obtained only at 150 C for 4 min.
The finisher has to take care of the temperature and time and should ensure that the mentioned
temperature is there on the fabric for the specified time and it is important to note that any deviations
results on the physical properties of the fabric with increased yellowening.

1.5 CHLORINE RETENTION

The term chlorine resistance encompasses two problems,

 yellowing of fabric by the bleach and tendering (strength loss).
 Nitrogenous finishes will react with hypochlorite bleaches to form a reaction product
(chloramides) t h a t decomposes with heat.
These chloramides liberate hydrochloric acid which degrade cellulose.Fabric develops the
characteristic scorched look and the fibers become very weak. Residual -NH groups are responsible for
the formation of chloramides.
Resins and reactants with residual -NH groups and cross-links that hydrolyze in laundering are
especially prone to pick-up chlorine from a bleach bath.
Both tendering and scorching are caused by the breakdown of the chloramide with heat to form
hydrochloric acid.

The reactions can be written as follows:

Mechanism of Chlorine Damage

1.5 FORMALDEHYDE RELEASE FROM RESIN FINISHED GOODS

Formaldehyde in Fabrics
1. Free Formaldehyde

21
 Free formaldehyde is defined as the uncombined monomeric formaldehyde that exists in finish
solutions.
Free formaldehyde is determined by suitable analytical titration procedures

2. Formaldehyde Release
Formaldehyde release, not to be confused with free formaldehyde, is the amount of
formaldehyde that escapes from a fabric into the atmosphere.
It is determined by the Mason jar method, AATCC Test Method 112.
 The method calls for suspending 1 gram of fabric in a sealed quart mason jar containing distilled
water in the bottom.
 The jar is incubated for 20 hours a t 490 C.
 The formaldehyde that collects in the water is analyzed and the results are reported in ppm or
µg/g fabric.

Strict exposure limits to formaldehyde vapour in the work place have been imposed on all industries
using formaldehyde products. Area of concern is the formaldehyde emanating from DP finished
fabrics.OSHA has lowered worker exposure to airborne formaldehyde to 0.75 ppm over an 8 hour time
weighted period. Towards this end, a lot of effort has been spent to reduce the formaldehyde

METHODS OF REDUCING FORMALDEHYDE RELEASE

A number of approaches have been tried to reduce HCHO release.
These approaches range from after washing the cured fabric to developing non-formaldehyde reactants.

Scavengers
Scavengers are defined an s materials capable of reacting with monomeric formaldehyde and
tying it up.
Scavengers are added to the finish formulation and can be grouped into two categories, nitrogenous
compounds and alcohols.
 The nitrogenous additives not only react with HCHO to form N-methylols, but also react with
the pendent N-methylols to form methylene bridges.
 Essentially they compete with the cellulose and when enough additive is present to lower HCHO
release, cellulose cross links are reduced resulting in lower DP performance.
 Effective nitrogenous scavengers are urea, ethylene urea and carbohydrazide.
22
Disadvantage:
Additional N-H groups are in the fabric further affecting chlorine damage and reduced light fastness.

FORMALDEHYDE RESINS
The most important resins in the family of resins are Urea Formaldehyde resins; and a number of
products are available in this family, wherein each one suffers from its inherent pros & cons as
mentioned above. The important commercial products are DMU, DMEU, DMDHEU.

1.Urea/Formaldehyde (U/F)

Advantage

Advantage
1. Very easy to cure.
2. Very low curing Temp. of 1200 C.
3. Very high Crease Recovery Angles

Dis-Advantages
1. Short shelf life, Along with catalyst shelf life is only few hours.
2. Free Formaldehyde content is very high. Work place polluted with free Formaldehyde
3. Very poor durability to laundering.
4. Finish adversely affects the Direct and reactive dyes.
5. Reacts with Hypochlorite bleaches to from reaction product which decomposes with heat to form
HCl.
6. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose and thereby tendering.
7. Formaldehyde Odor.
8. Over cured fabrics will give FISHY Odor.
2. Melamine/Formaldehyde

23
Advantage
1 .Free Formal- dehyde content is very high.
2. Poor durability to laundering.
3. Finish adversely affects the Direct and reactive dyes.
4. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose and thereby tendering.
5. Low Crease recovery angles.

Uses:
 The tri- products produce firmer hands than the hexa derivatives and are extensively used as
hand builders for fabrics other than cotton (Acrylic, nylon, polyester).
 Durability to repeated laundering is much better than U/F. This feature is a plus for permanent
hand builders.
 They are used in combination with phosphorus flame retardants as a source of nitrogen. Nitrogen
synergism enhances phosphorus flame retardants and melamine is an excellent source of
nitrogen.
 They are used as finishes for reducing wool shrinkage.
 Chlorine bleaches cause the fabrics to yellow;however, the reaction product does not
decompose with heat to liberate HCl and tender the fabric.

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Dimethylolethylene Urea (DMEU)
1. It was widely used prior to 1961 as a wash and wear finish.
2. The product has moderately good shelf life, much better than the amino- plasts..
3. DMEU is easily cured. It will begin to cure at 90 to 1000 C.
4. It is highly efficient and gives good wrinkle recovery with nominal losses in fabric strength.
5. The product does affect light fastness of certain direct and fiber reactive dyes.
6. Chlorine resistance is poor even though there are no remaining N-H groups.
7. Hydrolysis resistance is poor. Cross links are not durable to laundering, especially industrial
laundering conditions.

Advantages
1. Used for Wash & Wear Finish.
2. Very low curing Temp. 90 to 1000 ◦C.
3. Very high Crease Recovery Angles.
4. Good CRA are obtained.
5. Better stability.

Disadvantages
1. Better shelf life
2. Along with catalyst shelf life is enough for commercial applications.

25
 3. Free Formaldehyde content is high.
4. Very poor durability to laundering.
5. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose and thereby tendering.
6. Affects the light fastness of Direct and Reactive dyed fabrics

Dimethylol-4,5-Dihydroxyethylene Urea (DMDHEU)

• DMDHEU is the workhorse durable press finish. It and some of its modified versions account for
over 85% of all crease resistant chemicals consumed today.
• DMDHEU achieved this prominent role in 1961 when delay cure processing came into being. In
the trade, DMDHEU is often referred to a s the Glyoxal resin.

Synthesis
• The reaction is straightforward and can be carried out in regular laboratory glassware.
The methylolation step is also straightforward.
• While the synthesis is shown in two steps,
• Commercially DMDHEU is made directly in one step.
• Urea, formaldehyde and glyoxal are all combined together and heated.
• The extent of reaction is followed by monitoring the free formaldehyde content.
• The product is sold as a 46% solution.

26
The feature is responsible for why it has become the dominate DP finish.

• The commercial product has low free formaldehyde which makes it easy to
• handle in a finishing plant.
• It does not liberate formaldehyde from the reverse reaction as rapidly as do other reagents.
• The product has extremely good shelf life and even finish baths with catalyst present are
stable for prolong periods of time.
• Fabric temperatures exceeding 1300 C are needed before the cross-linking reaction takes
place.
Advantage
1. Very ,very Stable product
2. Even along with catalyst shelf life is very good.
3. Built in Catalyst systems are available
4. Best suited for DP Finish
5. Very low curing Temp. 90 to 1000 C.
6. Very high Crease Recovery Angles.
7. Free Formaldehyde content is within Eco limits
8. Good CRA are obtained.
9. Better stability.
10. Affect on light fastness is less when compared with DMEU
11. Resistance to Chlorine bleach is with in acceptable limits.
27
 12. Finished & dried fabrics can be left as it is for 6 months with out curing, as no side effects are
seen.
Dis-Advantages
1. Very stable product.
2. Even along with catalyst shelf life is good.
3. Free Formaldehyde content is there.
4. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose and thereby tendering.
5. Affects the light fastness of Direct and Reactive dyed fabrics.
6. High curing temperatures are required – above 1300 C

Process Sequence:
PAD ---- DRY ---- CURE ----- WASH
PAD ---- DRY ---- CURE
PAD ---- DRY
Eventhough the first one is the right sequence technically it is being not followed at all for the
benefit of the finisher and customer.The second one is followed for wrinkle free/DP finishings only and
for all practical purposes and for the benefit of the customer the 3rd one is well practiced.

1.6 STUDY ABOUT ECO FRIENDLY METHOD OF ANTI CREASE FINISHING

Recent ban on Formaldehyde made technicians and manufacturers to bring out special resins
suitable on the guidelines of Eco friendly processing, which resulted in the launch of Low
Formaldehyde or Formaldehyde free resins and today’s processor for obvious reasons is utilizing the
same. One should bear in mind that these resins are also made from Formaldehyde; however the free
Formaldehyde content is within the prescribed limits.

Researchers are looking out for resins totally free from Formaldehyde and made unsuccessful
breakthrough in the development of POLY CARBOXYLIC ACIDS such as Citric Acid and Maleic
Acid. However, these gave unsatisfactory Crease Recovery Angles apart from poor Wash Fastness
properties. For obvious reasons of cost & Low CRA and poor Wringle Free, they are not in use
commercially.

Majority of cross linking agents used are formaldehyde based including DMDHEU and
etherified DMDHEU, which has low formaldehyde content. Formaldehyde based cross linking agents is
28
cost effective & efficient. Formeldeyde vapours during processing and storage will release carginogenic
amines and also caus some dermatitis effects. Hence Release of formaldehyde content is restricted to 75
ppm.
Some of the approaches to limit formaldehyde release are
 After wash of cured fabric / garment
 Addition of foraldehyde acceptor / scavenger like urea, carbohydrizde
 Modification of DMDHEU with alchol to produce etherified DMDHEU to decrease formal
dehyde release eg: treatment of DMDHEU with diethylene glycol.
Zero formaldehyde derivatives of DMDHEU are more expensive and less effective than DMDHEU
at same add on levels. More curing systems are also often required.
Poly carboxylic acids (PCA) as cross linking agents:
1963, PCA used to cross link cotton & viscose in absence of catalyst.
Citric acid was used as most effective PCA
 It produces yellowing. 20% of cit ric acid is applied & cured at 140 – 1600C for 15-30 mints.
 It will give CRA – 250-270 for cotton
 50-65 % of Strength will be reduced.
Mechanism of PCA Crosss linking
-Crease resistant of cotton treated on N methylol based compounds depends on ether linkage with
cellulose.
-BTCA & other PCA are based on ester linkage. Esterification takes place in 2 steps
Step 1: Two adjacent – COOH groups dehydrate and transfer in to cyclic anhydride under high
temperature curing conditions.
Step 2: Acid and hydride undergo esterification reaction with – OH groups of cellulose
Requirement for step 1
 Require atleast 2 COOH groups.
 Adjacent -COOH should in same side for easy dehydration and to create cyclic anhydride.
 If – 2 COOH is located in 2 sides, no cyclic anhydride and no esterification reaction with
cellulose.
 Weakly basic alkali metal salts of phosphorous containing mineral acids accelerate cylic
anhydride. Eg: Sodium hypophosphite gives excellent

29
 Reaction of PCA with cellulose
-Most of the PCA imparts DR reting of 4.3-4.7 and CRA – 230-2700.
-Durability is less in alkaline laundering
Durability in decreasing order of different PCA: BTCA>CA>Maleic acid>Succinic acid
Catalyst used in PCA
Sodium hypophosphite, Sodium dihydrogen phosphate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, trisodium
hydrogen phosphate. Most effective is sodium hypophosphite(NaPO2H2), Disadvantage of NaPO2H2
is high cost, being a reducing agent, changes the shade in most sulphur and reactive dyes, as
phosphorous consume large amount of O2 in water, it deteriorate the quality of water.
BTCA:-1,2,3,4 Butante tetra carboxylic acid
The cyclic anhydride of BTCA (a) as the most effective DP finishing agent is in the form of a
dianhydride intermediate (Figure (b)), which can easily react with cellulose (c) .The esterification
reaction is accelerated when a proper catalyst is employed. Sodium hypophosphite (NaH2PO2) is the
best catalyst for the crosslinking of cotton with polycarboxylic acids, especially BTCA. The highest
levels of DP rating and WRA, reduction in cure temperature, increase of tensile strength retention and
the most satisfactory whiteness are obtained in the presence of a catalyst.
. The esterification reaction is also pH-dependent. When a cotton fabric is finished with BTCA in
the absence of a catalyst, the number of ester linkages formed in the fabric and the effectiveness of
bonded BTCA molecules decreases as the pH of the finishing bath maintained as 5.5.

30
Advantages:
-Most effective PCA
-Higher durability
-Free from odour
-4-5% of BTCA will give DMDHEU efffect
Limitations of BTCA:
• High Cost (Cost of synthesis and finishing is high.)
• Requirement of large amount of sodium hypophosphite and loss of the mechanical
strength

31
 UNIT - II
2.1 CONCEPT OF FLAME PROOF & FLAME RETARDANCY
Flame proofing
The fabric may be defined as the material which does not propagate the flame although it may
burn or char when subjected to any form of heat.
Flame proofing can be done by –
 Precipitating insoluble metallic compounds or depositing soluble metallic salts.
 By depositing insoluble metallic compound, the effect of fire proofing obtained is permanent as
it does not wash out.
 Out of all antimony ox chloride is the best.
 It is precipitated on the fiber by the double decomposition of tartarematic and stannic oxy
chloride, and then washed in running water.
 In the same manner, metallic salts such as magnesium borate, ammonium sulphate and
magnesium silicate also produce fire proofing.

Flame retardancy

Flame-retardant finishes provide textiles with an important performance characteristic.

Protection of consumers from unsafe apparel is only one area where flame retardancy is needed.
Firefighters and emergency personnel require protection from flames as they go about their duties. Floor
coverings, upholstery and drapery also need protection, especially when used in public buildings. The
military and the airline industry have multiple needs for flame-retardant textiles.

The requirements for a commercially successful flame-retardant textile product have been given
as meeting flammability requirements: having little or no adverse effect on the textile’s physical
properties; retaining the textile’s aesthetics and physiological properties; being produced by a simple
process with conventional equipment and inexpensive chemicals; and being durable to repeated home
launderings, tumble dryings and dry cleaning. It has been possible to meet these requirements for many
textile products since before 1983and our society enjoys a safer environment as a result. Progress is
continuing in this field and recent reviews have highlighted advances in the understanding and chemistry
of flameretardants, but progress has been relatively slow and the advances quite minorand specialised.
Two excellent reviews have appeared and should be requiredreading for those wishing to have a

32
comprehensive understanding of treatment with flame-retardant finishes. This chapter will cover the
same ground in a much more general way.
2.2 MECHANISMS OF FLAME (or) CONCEPT OF PYROLYSIS

In order to understand the mechanisms of effective flame retardants better, the mechanism of
combustion should first be clarified. Combustion is an exothermic process that requires three
components, heat, oxygen and a suitable fuel. When left unchecked, combustion becomes self catalysing
and will continue until the oxygen, the fuel supply or the excess heat is depleted. A diagram of the
current model of combustion of textile fibres is given in Fig. 8.1.

When heat is applied, the fibre’s temperature increases until the pyrolysis temperature, TP, is
reached. At this temperature, the fibre undergoes irreversible chemical changes, producing non-
flammable gases (carbon dioxide, water vapour and the higher oxides of nitrogen and sulfur),
carbonaceous char, tars (liquid condensates) and flammable gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
many oxidisable organic molecules). As the temperature continues to rise, the tars also pyrolyse,
producing more non-flammable gases, char and flammable gases. Eventually, the combustion
temperature, TC, is achieved. At this point, the flammable gases combine with oxygen in the process
called combustion, which is a series of gas phase free radical reactions (Fig. 8.2).

33
 These reactions are highly exothermic and produce large amounts of heat and light. The heat
generated by the combustion process provides the additional thermal energy needed to continue the
pyrolysis of the fibre, thereby supplying more flammable gases for combustion and perpetuating the
reaction. The burning behaviour of textiles is determined more by the speed or rate of heat release than
by the amount of this heat.
MECHANISMS OF FLAME RETARDENCY
Attempts to disrupt this cycle for textile substrates have focused on several approaches. One
method is to provide a heat sink on or in the fibre by use of materials that thermally decompose through
strongly endothermic reactions. If enough heat can be absorbed by these reactions, the pyrolysis
temperature of the

fibre is not reached and no combustion takes place. Examples of this method are the use of aluminium
hydroxide or ‘alumina trihydrate’ and calcium carbonate as fillers in polymers and coatings (Fig. 8.3)

Another approach is to apply a material that forms an insulating layer around the fibre at
temperatures below the fibre pyrolysis temperature. Boric acid and its hydrated salts function in this
capacity (Fig. 8.4). When heated, these low melting compounds release water vapour and produce a
foamed glassy surface on the fibre, insulating the fibre from the applied heat and oxygen.

34
 A third way to achieve flame retardancy is to influence the pyrolysis reaction to produce less
flammable volatiles and more residual char. This ‘condensed phase’ mechanism can be seen in the
action of phosphorous-containing flame retardants which, after having produced phosphoric acid
through thermal decomposition, crosslink with hydroxyl-containing polymers thereby altering the
pyrolysis to yield less flammable by-products (Fig. 8.5). But there are also other explanations for the
first steps of this dehydration, including single esterification without crosslinking, for example, of the
primary hydroxyl group in the C-6 position of the cellulose units. These phosphorous esters catalyse the
dehydration (Fig. 8.6) and prevent the formation of undesired levoglucosan (Fig. 8.7),the precursor of
flammable volatiles.

35
 The ‘condensed phase’ strategy includes the described mechanism of removal of heat and the
enhancement of the decomposition temperature as in heat resistant fibres.

A fourth approach to preventing combustion is to interfere with the free radical reactions (flame
chemistry, Fig. 8.2) that provide the heat needed for the process to continue. Materials that act in this
‘gas phase’ mechanism include halogen- containing compounds which, during combustion, yield
hydrogen halides that form relatively long lived, less reactive free radicals, effectively reducing the heat
available for perpetuating the combustion cycle, and which decrease the oxygen content by flame gas
dilution (Fig. 8.8).

36
FLAME-RETARDANT CHEMISTRY

The most important commercial flame retardants can be classified into three broad categories.
Primary flame retardants based on phosphorous (condensed phasemechanism) and halogens (gas phase
mechanism); synergistic retardancy enhancers that have only small flame retarding effects by
themselves, but greatly enhance the flame retardancy of primary flame retardants (nitrogen with
phosphorous and antimony with halogens); and adjunctive flame retardants that exhibit their activity
through physical effects (borates, alumina trihydrate, calcium carbonate and intumescents, explained
later).

Organic nitrogen is thought to help control the pH during the crosslinking reactions of
phosphoric acid. The nitrogen can become protonated, reducing the amount of acid available. If the pH
is too low, cellulose will undergo acid hydrolysis rather than crosslinking. If the pH is too high, the acid
catalysed crosslinking cannot take place. Organic nitrogen may be converted to phosphorous acid
amides that also catalyse the dehydration and carbonisation of cellulose. The synergistic effect of
antimony comes from the volatility of antimony trihalides and the effectiveness of antimony compounds
in scavenging free radicals (Fig. 8.9) over a broad temperature range (for example 245–565 °C).

37
Table 8.2shows common synergistic combinations of flame retardants.

1.3 FLAME RETARDANTS FOR CELLULOSE

One important thermal degradation mechanism of cellulose fibres (cotton, rayon, linen, etc.) is
the formation of the small depolymerisation product levoglucosan (Fig. 8.7). Levoglucosan and its
volatile pyrolysis products are extremely flammable materials and are the main contributors to cellulose
combustion. Compounds that are able to hinder levoglucosan formation are expected to function as
flame retardants for cellulose. The crosslinking and the single type of esterification of

38
cellulose polymer chains by phosphoric acid reduces levoglucosan generation, catalyses dehydration and
carbonisation, and thus functions as an effective flame- retardant mechanism. This carbonisation of
cellulose is similar to the well known carbonisation process of wool with sulfuric acid, removing plant
dirt and other cellulosics. In an idealised equation, flame-retardant finished cellulose (C6H10O5)n
would be decomposed to 6nC and 5nH2O. The first step of this reaction is shown in Fig. 8.6.The
resulting char is much less flammable than the volatile organic pyrolysis products of untreated cellulose.

Chemicals that can yield phosphoric acid during the early stages of fibre pyrolysis form the
majority of successful flame retardants for cellulose. However, it is not sufficient to supply just
phosphoric acid precursors. The presence of nitrogen has been found to provide a synergistic effect with
phosphorous. Minimum levels of added phosphorous and nitrogen for effective flame retardancy have
been estimated at ~ 2 % P and ~1 % N. However, these minimum levels can vary greatly depending on
fabric construction and test requirements.

2.3.1 Durable flame retardants for cellulose

Although inorganic salts can provide excellent flame-retardant properties for cellulose,
reasonable laundering durability must be incorporated into any finish destined for apparel use. The most
successful durable flame retardants for cellulose are based on phosphorous- and nitrogen-containing
chemical systems that can react with the fibre or form crosslinked structures on the fibre. The key
ingredient of one of these finishes is tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC), made from
phosphine, formaldehyde and hydrochloric acid (Fig. 8.11) THPC reacts with urea to form an insoluble
structure on cellulose in a pad–dry–cure process (Fig. 8.12)

39
Some reaction with cellulose also occurs. Treating the cured finish with hydrogen peroxide to convert
the phosphorous atoms to their highest oxidation state results in cellulosic goods with very durable
40
flame retardancy. Applying 25 % THPC with 15 % urea yields a final phosphorous add-on of 3.5–4 %,
which is adequate for most fabrics. Although the THPC–urea system can give highly effective and
durable flame retardancy to cellulose, treated fabrics are stiff and have significantly impaired tensile and
tear strengths as well as releasing formaldehyde during processing. Typically, carefully chosen softeners
and mechanical finishing techniques are used to provide commercially acceptable fabrics. Variations on
THPC-based systems have been the use of the sulfate or hydroxy salts; THP-S to eliminate the possible
formation of highly toxic bis(chloromethyl) etherduring processing, and THP-OH to reduce acidic
tendering of the goods.
A variation on the THPC–urea system was developed to produce finishes with less stiffness and
fibre damage (Proban process). A precondensate is prepared by the careful reaction of THPC with urea.
This precondensate is padded onto the fabric and the fabric is dried to a specific moisture content (~
15 %). The fabric is then exposed to ammonia vapours in a special reaction chamber, followed by
oxidation with hydrogen peroxide (Fig. 8.13). The polymer that forms is primarily located in the lumen
of the cotton fibre. The final finish provides durable flame retardancy to cotton with much improved
fabric properties. It is important to note

that very few direct or fibre reactive dyes can withstand exposure to THP-based finishes. Almost all
cellulosic goods that are to be flame retardant treated with a THP finish should be dyed with vat dyes.
Another successful commercial approach to durable phosphorous-containing finishes is the use of N-
methylol dimethylphosphonopropionamide (Fig. 8.14) in combination with trimethylol melamine and
phosphoric acid as catalyst in a pad–dry–cure process. The required add-on is 20–30 % depending on
the weight of the fabric. In this process, washing after curing is necessary to remove the phosphoric acid,
leading to higher costs associated with the second drying step. In addition, the finish may give rise to an
unpleasant odour during the curing step. Novel developments include higher product purity, decrease in
formaldehyde emission during curing and by the finished textile, and also higher fixation rates enabled
by moderate condensation conditions (accompanied by less fibre damage).

41
2.3.2 NON-DURABLE FLAME RETARDANTS FOR CELLULOSE

Inorganic salts have long been known to provide flame retardancy on cellulosic material that will
not be exposed to water, rain or perspiration. The French chemist Gay-Lussac proposed a borax and
ammonium sulfate treatment as a flame retardant for cotton in 1820. Today, a mixture of boric acid and
borax is still an effective flame retardant for cotton at ~ 10 % solids add-on. Ammonium salts of strong
acids, especially phosphoric acid (P/N synergism) are particularly useful as non- durable flame
retardants for cellulose. Three commercially important products are diammonium phosphate, ammonium
sulfamate and ammonium bromide. These salt readily from the corresponding strong acids upon heating
(Fig 8.10) Diammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfamate are used at ~ 15 % solids add- on and
function as condensed phase flame retardants, not only by crosslinking but also by dehydrating cellulose
to polymeric char with reduced formation of flammable by-products (Fig. 8.6). The water insoluble
ammonium polyphosphate is an effective flame retardant and is added to coatings and binder systems,
for example for pigment printing. Ammonium bromide is applied at ~ 10 % solids add-on and is
effective in the gas phase.

2.4 CONCEPT OF WATER REPELLENT AND WATER PROOF FINISHES:

Water Repellency is more difficult to define because various static and dynamic tests are used
to measure water repellency. Generally speaking water repellent fabrics are those which resist being
wetted by water, water drops will roll off the fabric. A fabric's resistance to water will depend on the
nature of the fiber surface, the porosity of the fabric and the dynamic force behind the impacting water
spray. The conditions of the test must be stated when specifying water repellency. It is important to
distinguish between water-repellent and water-proof fabrics.

Water Repellent Fabrics have open pores and are permeable to air and water vapor. Water-
repellent fabrics will permit the passage of liquid water once hydro-static pressure is high enough.

Water-Proof Fabrics are resistant to the penetration of water under much higher hydrostatic
pressure than are water-repellent fabrics. These fabrics have fewer open pores and are less permeable to
the passage of air and water vapor. The more waterproof a fabric, the less able it is to permit the passage
of air or water vapor. Waterproof is a n overstatement, a more descriptive term is impermeable to water.

42
Physical Chemistry Of Wetting

 When a drop of liquid on a solid surface does not spread, the drop will assume
a shape that appears constant and exhibits an angle, called the contact angle.
 The angle is characteristic of the particular liquid/solid interaction;
 The equilibrium contact angle serves as an indication of wettability of the solid by the liquid.
 As seen in figure, the interfacial forces between the liquid and vapor, liquid and solid and solid
and vapour all come into play when determining whether a liquid will spread or not on a smooth
solid surface.
 The equilibrium established between these forces determines the contact angle 0.

 Water repellency can be defined as the ability of the fabric to withstand wetting or penetration
by water under test conditions
 Those finishes producing contact angles less than 90◦ will allow the liquid drop to quickly
penetrate into the fabric

WATER PROOFING FINISH:-

43
 In Water proofing, the interstices of the fabric as well as the surface of the material are covered
with a film in such a manner that the material becomes not only water repellent but impermeable to air
and moisture
E.g. film of rubber

WATER REPELLENT FINISH:-

A water repellency finish, is one in which the fibres are made water – repellent without filling up
completely the interstices of the fabric, by coating with a hydrophobic substance or by a chemical
reaction in such a manner that the fabric remains porous to air and can breathe. i.e; They have open
course and permeable to air and water vapor.
E.g. aluminium soap
The conditions of the test must be stated when specifying water repellency. It is important to
distinguish between water-repellent and water-proof fabrics.

Water Repellent Fabrics

 Have open pores and are permeable to air and water vapour.
 Water-repellent fabrics will permit the passage of liquid water once hydro-static pressure is high
enough.

Water-Proof Fabrics
 Resistant to the penetration of water under much higher hydrostatic pressure than water-repellent
fabrics.
 These fabrics have fewer open pores and are less permeable to the passage of air and water
vapor.
 The more waterproof a fabric, the less able it is to permit the passage of air or water vapor.
 Waterproof is an overstatement, a more descriptive term is impermeable to water.

Objectives:-
Water-repellent fabrics having specific end use like umbrella cloth, sports wear, raincoat, tarpaulin, etc.
is prepared.
 Imparts stain and spot resistance property
 Improves abrasion resistance, wear and tear resistances and sewing qualities
 Improvement of hand or feel of goods
44
  Imparts good resistance to dry cleaning
 Treated fabric does not wrinkle or shrink badly.

Process/Chemicals:-
The fabric is made water repellent by the deposition.
 Aluminum compounds either applied alone or with soaps also called as metallic soaps e.g.
Aluminum stearate wax dispersion.
 Wax dispersion contains Aluminum or Zirconium salts, Hybridism compounds, waxy
thermosetting compounds, silicon, fluorochemicals. Vulcanized natural rubbers, oxidized oils or
varnishes poly vinyl chloral acetate, cellulose acetate, poly vinyl butane, poly vinelidine chloride

Ciritical surface tension

 For fabrics to be water repellent, the critical surface tension of the fiber's surface must be
lowered to about 24 to 30 dynes/cm.
 Pure water has a surface tension of 72 dynes/cm so these values are sufficient for water
repellency.
 This section will be devoted to describing materials that are used mainly as water repellent
finishes.
 Oil repellency requires that the fiber surface be lowered to 13 dynes /cm.

Methods of Application
 Rubber is one of the most suitable substances for use in water proofing .
 Rubber solution or dough is applied to fabrics by the spreading method.
 The fabric should be free from starch size or filling in order to obtain best adhesion of rubber to
the cloth.
 The cloth is passed over two rollers placed at some distance under a doctor knife the dough is
carried forward by the cloth until it meets the doctor blade which is fitted with plates to prevent
the rubber overflowing at the ends.
 The knife is made to press on the cloth and spreads the coating evenly over the surface of the
material.
 The doctor blade is about 200cm long, 20 cm wide and 0.3 cm thick.
 The thicker blades apply a greater amount of coating than the thinner blades.

45
 The impregnated cloth then passes through a steam chamber 10 to 30 m long and sufficiently
wide to accommodate the cloth to evaporate the solvent which is collected and recovered.
 Both side of the cloth can also be coated at the same time.
 For this purpose the dough box is filled with the rubber solution.
 The lower part is partly covered the fabric passes into the trough and round the submerged roller,
on to a second guide roller and then between two doctor blades which regulate the amount of
solution applied to the cloth.
 The drying of rubber coated fabric involves the removal of the solvent in the solution at about
80◦C.
 If excessive heat is applied, pin holes are formed rapid evaporation causes deposition of moisture
on the newly formed coating.
 Precautions have to be taken to remove vapours from the drying chamber as many of the solvents
are inflammable.
 A back filling machine similar to Tommy Dodd may be used for coating only one side of the
fabric .The cloth is passed round a large bowl into the solution which is applied to one side of the
cloth by keeping the upper surface of the bowl clean by a doctor blade .A second blade produces
and even application of the solution .Rugs and blankets are coated with rubber on the back side
to anchor the pile.
 Vulcanized natural rubber is an ideal water proofing agent as the coating ais completely
impermeable to water.
 A coating of required thickness is obtained by a number of treatments usually the direction of
feeding the cloth after each application is reversed.
 if the rubber is not firmly fixed by the spreading methods it is spread first and the calendered.
 Rubber latex is advantageous since its viscosity is low so that larger amounts can be spread at
one operation than with a solution but rubber either solvents gives a better penetration than with
latex.
 Hot solutions of asphalt , wood tar and paraffin wax mixed in solvent naphtha are applied to
heavy cotton good from a mangle and trough oil coatings are also given to these heavy weight
fabrics.
 usually 4 coatings are given with an interval for drying between each coat.
 Various pigments are also added to the solvent the cloth gains at least 30% in weight chloroprene
is applied in the same way as rubber.

46
  Synthetics resins such as polyvinyl chloroacetate and polyvinylidine chloride are now used as
water proofing agents cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate can be used for water proofing about
they are rarely used for this purpose the nitrate is inflammable and the acetate is expensive
special machines are now used for coating fabric with rubber and a doctor blade is set to scrape
off excess of rubber and leave on the fabric a film of desired thickness
 Although polythene sheets and plastic covers are completely water proof they are not durable
and can get cut and torn readily even then street vendors and small traders use them as cover of
protecting their goods from rain

II. HYDROCARBON HYDROPHOBES

A. Paraffin Waxes

 The oldest and most economical way to make a fabric water repellent is to coat
it with paraffin wax.
 Solvent solutions, molten coatings and wax emulsions are ways of applying wax to fabrics.
 Of these, wax emulsions are the most convenient products for finishing fabrics.
 An important consideration in making water repellent wax emulsion is that the emulsifying
system not detracts from the hydrophobic character of paraffin.
 Either non-rewetting emulsifiers or some means of deactivating the hydrophilic group after the
fabric is impregnated with the finish must be used.
 Paraffin wax melts and wicks into the fabric when the fabric is heated.
 This will cause most of the fibers to be covered with a thin layer of wax, especially those that are
exposed to water, and the fabric will have excellent water repellent properties.
 The major disadvantage of wax water repellents is poor durability.
 Wax is easily abraded by mechanical action and wax dissolves in dry cleaning fluids.
 It is also removed by laundry processes.
 A typical wax emulsion consists of paraffin wax as the hydrophobic, an emulsifying agent, an
emulsion stabilizer (protective colloid) and an aluminum or zirconium salt to deactivate the
emulsifying agent when the fabric is heated.

47
Fiber Reactive Hydrocarbon Hydrophobes N-Methylol Stearamide
 In an effort to improve the durability of hydrocarbon based water repellents, several approaches
incorporating reactive groups have found commercial success.
 The simplest of these is N-methylol stearamide.
 Stearamide reacts with formaldehyde to form the N-methylol adduct.
 This adduct is water dispersible and either will react on curing with cellulose, dimerize or react
with crosslinking reagents that are co-applied.

Pyridinium Compounds
 A variation of N-methylol stearamide is the pyridinium type water repellents.
 These were once very popular and used extensively as reactive type water repellent finishes.
 Toxicological considerations have curtailed the use of pyridinium-type water repellents. Workers
a t the US Army Quartermaster Corp discovered that pyridinium type water repellents co-applied
with fluorochemical repellents resulted in a synergistic effect by providing good, long-lasting
water repellency for military fabrics.
 The finish was durable to field laundry procedures and named Quarpel by its inventors. The
concept of adding wax type water repellents to fluorochemical repellents has been broadened and
other wax type called Extenders are used with fluorochemicals.
 More on extenders will be included in the section dealing with fluorochemical repellents.

48
Resin Formers
 The multiple reactive sites on methylolmelamines can be utilized for making
resin-forming water repellents.
 The reactivity of stearamide with formaldehyde can be utilized for attaching hydrophobic groups
to the melamine molecule.
 Part of the N-methylol groups are used to attach the hydrophobe, some are used to add a cationic
site for emulsification purposes and some of the N-methylol groups are later involved in self
condensation to forma resinous coating on the fiber surface or to react

Metal Complexes
 Werner-type chrome complexes of stearic acid have been marketed under the
 trademark Quilon by DuPont.
 These products are especially effective on fiberglass since they can react with the glass surface.
 The product is made by reacting stearic acid with basic chrome chloride in a n isopropanol
solution.
 The product is diluted with water just prior to being applied to fabric causing the complex to
hydrolyze. acid with basic chrome chloride in a n isopropanol solution.
 The product is diluted with water just prior to being applied to fabric causing the complex to
hydrolyze.
 During application, the polymerization is not allowed to proceed so far as to cause precipitation
of the polymer.
 On standing or when heated, the complex will polymerize to form -Cr-O-Cr-O-Cr- bonds. When
the fabric is cured at 150-170” C, further polymerization of the complex occurs bonding the
inorganic portion to the fiber surface.
 This will cause the hydrophobic tail to orient perpendicularly away from the surface, providing
water repellency to the fabric.

SILICON FINISHES :
49
 Polydimethylsiloxane products that are useful as water repellents can form a hydrophobic layer
around fibres (Fig. 6.3). The unique structure of the polydimethlysiloxanes provides the ability to form
hydrogen bonds with fibres as well as display a hydrophobic outer surface. In order to gain some
measure of durability, silicones designed as water-repellent treatments usually consist of three
components, a silanol, a silane and a catalyst such as tin octoate (Fig. 6.4) The catalyst enables not only
moderate condensation conditions but also promotes the orientation of the silicone film on the fibre
surface. The outward oriented methyl groups generate the water repellency. During the drying step after
pad application, the silanol and silane components can react (Fig. 6.5) to form a three-dimensional
crosslinked sheath around the fibre. This reaction is often completed after storage of about one day, then
providing full repellency. The Si–H groups of the silane are the reactive links in the silicone chain,
generating crosslinks or being oxidised by air or hydrolysed by water to hydroxyl groups. These
hydroxyl groups may cause further crosslinking, but if too many of them stay unreacted, their
hydrophilicity will decrease the repellency.

50
Advantages of silicone water repellents include a high degree of water repel- lency at relatively low
( 0.5–1 % owf) on weight of fabric concentrations, very soft fabric hand, improved sewability and shape
retention, and improved appearance and feel of pile fabrics. Some modified silicone repellents can be
exhaust applied (to pressure-sensitive fabrics).

The disadvantages of silicone repellents include increased pilling and seam slippage, reduced
repellency if excessive amounts are applied (for example silicone double layer with polar outside, Fig.
6.6), only moderate durability to laundering (through hydrolysis of siloxane and rupture of the film by
51
strong cellulose fibre swelling) and dry cleaning (adsorption of surfactants), and no oil and soil
repellency. The silicone finish may enhance the attraction of hydrophobic dirt. In addition, the waste
water, especially the residual baths, from these finish application processes are toxic to fish.

FLUOROCARBON-BASED REPELLENTS
Fluorocarbons (FC) provide fibre surfaces with the lowest surface energies of all the repellent
finishes in use. Both oil and water repellency can be achieved. FC repellents are synthesised by
incorporating perfluoro alkyl groups into acrylic or urethane monomers that can then be polymerised to
form fabric finishes (Fig. 6.7). Originally, the perfluoro alkyl groups were produced by electrochemical
fluorination, but today they are produced by telomerisation (Fig. 6.8).
The final polymer,when applied to a fibre, should form a structure that presents a dense CF outer
surface for maximum repellency. A typical structure is shown in Fig. 6.9.
The length of the perfluorinated side chains should be about 8–10 carbons. The small spacer
group, mostly ethylene, can be modified to improve emulsification and solubility of the polymer.
Comonomers (X, Y, for example stearyl- or lauryl methacrylate, butylacrylate, methylol- or epoxy-
functional acrylates and block copolymers from α,ω-dihydroxydimethylpolysiloxane) affect fabric hand,
film

52
formation and durability. In this way and by adding appropriate emulsifiers, FC products can be widely
modified for many special performance profiles (see Table 6.1). Most FC products are padded, dried and
cured. Heat treatment causes an orientation of the perfluoro side chains to almost crystalline structures.
This is crucial for optimal repellency. Washing and dry cleaning disturb this orientation and reduce
finish performance. The orientation must be regenerated by a new heat treatment (ironing, pressing or
tumble drying). But with some new FC products, drying in air is sufficient (laundry–air–dry or LAD
products). Tailored FCs and blocked isocyanates, the so-called boosters, are used for this effect.
Depending on the kind of blocking group, the isocyanate is activated at different temperatures and then
reacts with the functional groups of the FC, the fibre or with itself (crosslinking). This fixation on the
fibre surface provides durability to washing, dry cleaning and rubbing as a second important effect.
Boosters also cause better film formation and thereby higher repellency effects. Useful effects of
boosters are listed in Table 6.2. However, high amounts of boosters adversely affect fabric hand.

53
 General advantages of fluorocarbon-repellent finishes include low active add ons (< 1 % owf)
and more rapid drying of treated fabrics. Special FCs allow improved soil release during household
laundering or stain resistance on nylon, which is especially useful for carpets.

Disadvantages of fluorocarbon repellents include high cost, greying during laundering,

potentially hazardous aerosols, the need for special treatment of waste water from application processes
and the fact that they usually cannot be applied effectively by exhaustion (but there are some new FC
products that are exceptions to this rule). Low-curing FCs are another new development. They get their
repellency without heat, only after drying at room temperature. This is of interest for the impregnation of
garments, upholstery and carpets. An inevitable disadvantage is their low durability because of the lack
of fixation by crosslinking. A novel FC development is inspired by nature and therefore called bionic
finishes.

Fluorocarbon polymers are applied together with dendrimers, causing self organisation where the
fluorocarbon chains are enriched on the surface and co crystallise with the dendrimers. Dendrimers are
highly branched oligomers with non-polar chains forming a starbrush structure. They force the polar
parts of the FC polymers to form the surface structure mentioned at the beginning of this section.

The resulting polar and non-polar sandwich arrangements are highly ordered, causing equal or
better repellency effects with lower amounts of fluorocarbon compared to dendrimer-free FC finishes.
Other advantages include low condensation temperature (80–130 °C), high abrasion resistance, good
wash permanence and soft hand. A hypothetical structure of a dendrimer is shown in Fig. 6.10.

2.4.1 EVALUATION OF WATER REPELLENCY AND WATER PROOFING

 The oil and water repellent features of fluorochemical polymers lead to finishes
 applicable in two consumer product areas, durable rainwear fabrics and stain/soil
 resistant products.
 For rainwear products, superior durability to repeated laundering and drycleaning is the major
advantage.
 For stain and soil resistance, the plus features are the fluorochemical's ability to prevent oils from
penetrating into the fabric or from soils sticking to the fiber surface.
 Most fabric stains are caused by liquids depositing coloring matter on the fabric.

54
  Water borne stains can be held out by silicone water repellents; however, oil based stains can
only be repelled by the low surface energy of closely packed fluorocarbon tails.
 For textiles that cannot be laundered, e.g. upholstery fabrics and carpets, stain and soil repellency
is an important consumer plus.
 For fabrics that can be laundered or dry cleaned, stain removal is more important than stain
prevention.
 Finishes designed to facilitate soil removal by laundering will be discussed in a later section.

A. Rainwear
 A typical formulation for polyester-cotton rainwear and outerwear is shown in Table 16. The
finish is applied by padding the formulation onto fabric, drying a t 120°C and curing 1-3 minutes
a t 150-182o C.
 The fabric will give a 100 spray rating initially and a n 80 rating after 5 home laundering-tumble
drying cycles.
 An 80 spray rating is expected after one dry cleaning cycle.
In addition, oil repellency rating of 5 initially and 4 after laundering or dry cleaning is expected

Test Methods:-
Bondsman Rain Test:- ISI Test Method No.392-1964.
The sample is subjected to water spray on the Bondsman rain apparatus under standardized
conditions. From the total amount of water percolated through the absorbed by test specimen, ratings
from 1 to 5 are given using the usual grading system i.e. 1-very poor and 5-excellent.

Cone Test:- ISI Method No.941-1976.

A cone of the treated cloth is prepared.
The cone is kept in the funnel of 60°C angle and filled with 400 ml water.
The water percolated through the cone is measured and comparison between two finishes is made.
Recommended norms-No leakage of water or wetting on outside cone after 18 hrs

55
2.5 ANTI MICROBIAL FINISH

Introduction

Two different aspects of antimicrobial protection provided by chemical finishes can be

distinguished. The first is the protection of the textile user against pathogenic or odour causing
microorganisms (hygiene finishes). The second aspect is the protection of the textile itself from damage
caused by mould, mildew or not producing microorganisms.

The growth of microorganisms on textiles can lead to functional, hygienic and aesthetic
difficulties (for example staining). The most trouble-causing organisms are fungi and bacteria. Under
very moist conditions, algae can also grow on textiles but are troublesome only because they act as
nutrient sources for fungi and bacteria. Fungi cause multiple problems to textiles including
discoloration, coloured stains, and fibre damage. Bacteria are not as damaging to fibres, but can produce
some fibre damage, unpleasant odours and a slick, slimy feel. Often, fungi and bacteria are both present
on the fabric in a symbiotic relationship.
Substances added to fibres, such as lubricants, antistats, natural-based auxiliaries (for example
size, thickener and hand modifiers) and dirt provide a food source for microorganisms. Synthetic fibres
are not totally immune to microorganisms, for example polyurethane fibres and coatings can be
damaged. Of course, because of evolution, natural fibres are more easily attacked. Wool is more likely
to suffer bacterial attack than cotton, and cotton is more likely than wool to be attacked by
fungi.

Antimicrobial finishes are particularly important for industrial fabrics that are exposed to
weather. Fabrics used for awnings, screens, tents, tarpaulins, ropes, and the like, need protection from
rotting and mildew. Home furnishings such as carpeting, shower curtains, mattress ticking and
upholstery also frequently receive antimicrobial finishes. Fabrics and protective clothing used in areas
where there might be danger of infection from pathogens can benefit from antimicrobial finishing. These
include hospitals, nursing homes, schools, hotels, and crowded public areas. Textiles in museums are
often treated with antimicrobial finishes for preservation reasons. Sized fabrics that are to be stored or
shipped under conditions of high temperature (~ 40 °C or 100 ºF) and humidity require an antimicrobial
finish to retard or prevent microbial growth fuelled by the presence of warp size. Textiles left wet
between processing steps for an extended time often also need an antimicrobial treatment.
56
 The use of antimicrobial finishes to prevent unpleasant odours on intimate apparel, underwear,
socks and athletic wear is an important market need. The odours are produced by the bacterial
decomposition of sweat and other body fluids, and controlling bacterial growth by hygiene finishes
reduces or eliminates the problem.

Properties of an effective antimicrobial finish

The growth rate of microbes can be astoundingly rapid. The bacteria population, for example,
will double every 20 to 30 min under ideal conditions (36–40 °C or 77–98 °F, pH 5–9). At this rate, one
single bacteria cell can increase to 1 048 576 cells in just 7 hours. Therefore, antimicrobial finishes must
be quick acting to be effective.

In addition to being fast acting, a number of other important criteria can be listed for
antimicrobial finishes. The antimicrobial must kill or stop the growth of microbes and must maintain this
property through multiple cleaning cycles or outdoor exposure. The antimicrobial must be safe for the
manufacturer to apply and the consumer to wear. The finish must meet strict government regulations and
have a minimal environmental impact. The antimicrobial finish must be easily applied at the textile mill,
should be compatible with other finishing agents, have little if any adverse effects on other fabric
properties including wear comfort, and should be of low cost.

Mechanisms of antimicrobial finishes

Despite the long list of requirements, a variety of chemical finishes have been used to produce
textiles with demonstrable antimicrobial properties. These products can be divided into two types based
on the mode of attack on microbes.
One type consists of chemicals that can be considered to operate by a controlled-release
mechanism. The antimicrobial is slowly released from a reservoir either on the fabric surface or in the
interior of the fibre. This ‘leaching’ type of antimicrobial can be very effective against microbes on the
fibre surface or in the surrounding environment. However, eventually the reservoir will be depleted and
the finish will no longer be effective. In addition, the antimicrobial that is released to the environment
may interfere with other desirable microbes, such as those present in waste treatment facilities.

57
 The second type of antimicrobial finish consists of molecules that are chemically bound to fibre
surfaces. These products can control only those microbes that are present on the fibre surface, not in the
surrounding environment. ‘Bound’ antimicrobials, because of their attachment to the fibre, can
potentially be abraded away or become deactivated and lose long term durability. Antimicrobial finishes
that control the growth and spread of microbes are more properly called biostats, i.e. bacteriostats,
fungistats. Products that actually kill microbes are biocides, i.e. bacteriocides, fungicides. This
distinction is important when dealing with governmental regulations, since biocides are strongly control-
led. Textiles with biostatic properties, however, are subject to fewer regulations. The actual mechanisms
by which antimicrobial finishes control microbial growth are extremely varied, ranging from preventing
cell reproduction, blocking of enzymes, reaction with the cell membrane (for example with silver ions)
to the destruction of the cell walls and poisoning the cell from within.

Chemistry of antimicrobial finishes or Antimicrobials for controlled release

Many antimicrobial products that were formerly used with textiles are now strictly regulated
because of their toxicity and potential for environmental damage. Products such as copper naphthenate,
copper-8-quinolinate, and numerous organo mercury compounds fall into this category. Other materials
that still have limited use in specialised areas include tributyl tin oxide (deleted in many countries, Fig.
15.1a), dichlorophene (Fig. 15.1b) and 3-iodopropynylbutyl carbamate (Fig. 15.1c). These products
typically show a very broad spectrum of activity against bacteria and fungi, but suffer from application
and durability problems.

Some more useful products of this same general type include benzimidazol derivatives,
salicylanilides and alkylolamide salts of undecylenic acid (particularly effective against fungi).
Application of these materials with resin precondensates can improve durability to laundering, but also
deactivation by reaction with the resin may occur.

A widely used biocide and preservation product is formaldehyde. Solutions of formaldehyde in

water, called formalin, were used for disinfection and conservation, for example, of biological samples
for display. Bound formaldehyde is released in small amounts from common easy-care and durable
press finishes. Therefore these finishes include – at least until they are washed – a small antimicrobial
side effect. This can also be true for some quaternary compounds, for example wet fastness improvers
and softeners. But for more effective requirements specific antimicrobial finishes are necessary.
58
 One of the most widely used antimicrobial products today is 2,4,4'-trichloro-2'- hydroxydiphenyl
ether, known more commonly as ‘triclosan’ (Fig. 15.1d). Triclosan finds extensive use in mouthwashes,
toothpastes, liquid hand soaps, deodorant products, and the like. Although it is effective against most
bacteria, it has poor antifungal properties. Triclosan is also important as a textile finish, but since its
water solubility is very low, aqueous application requires use of dispersing agents and binders.
Quaternary ammonium salts have been found to be effective antibacterial agents in cleaning
products and for disinfecting swimming pools and hot tubs. However, their high degree of water
solubility limits their use as textile finishes. Research into controlled-release antimicrobials continues
with organo-silver compounds and silver zeolites, which are promising candidates for textile finishes.
Silver ions, for example, incorporated in glass ceramic, have a very low toxicity profile and excellent
heat stability.

59
 These principles are also used for fibre modification, an alternative to the antimicrobial finishes
with high permanence. In recent years a variety of antimicrobial modified fibres have been developed,
including polyester, nylon, polypropylene and acrylic types. An example of these fibre modifications is
the incorporation of 0.5–2 % of organic nitro compounds (for example based on 5-nitrofurfural) before
primary wet or dry spinning.

Regenerated cellulosics can be modified with carboxylic or sulfonic acid groups, followed by
immersing in a solution of cationic antimicrobials which are then fixed to the cellulose by salt bonds. A
novel approach to the controlled release of antimicrobials is microencapsulation. These capsules are
incorporated either in the fibre during primary spinning or in coatings on the fabric surface.

2.5.1 EVALUATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHES

60
61
 UNIT - III
3.1 SOIL RELEASE FINISH
INTRODUCTION
The easy-care attributes of garments made from durable press finished cotton and synthetic
fibres led to their ready acceptance by consumers in the 1960s. However, it quickly became apparent
that these garments were more difficult to clean than garments made from natural fibres. A great deal of
research in the textile industry was focused on the problem of soil release and many products were
introduced to the market to overcome this performance deficiency. Soil-release finishes on textiles
facilitate the removal of soils during laundering under common household conditions.

Fabrics treated with soil-release finishes are particularly suited to active wear and leisure wear,
markets that are continuing to grow in importance. Industrial uniforms and napery are other market areas
where soil release is a desirable product feature. Recent work has shown that soil release can even be
incorporated into yarn finishes.

Other fabric properties that are enhanced by soil-release finishes include protection from soil
redeposition during laundering and absorbency or transport of liquid water. Fabrics with increased
absorbency provide garments that feel more comfortable under hot, humid conditions, thus leading the
name ‘comfort finish’ that has often been applied to fabrics treated with soil-release agents.

Stain Repellency is the ability of a treated fabric to withstand penetration of liquid soils under
static conditions involving only the weight of the drop and capillary forces.
Oil Repellency is tested by placing a drop of oil on the fabric and observing whether the drop
resides on top the fabric or whether it penetrates.
 A homologous series of hydrocarbons decreasing in surface tension is used to rate the fabric's oil
repellency.
 The hydrocarbon with the lowest surface tension to remain on top and not penetrate is indicative
of the fabric's repellency.
 The lower the surface tension of the liquid, the better the fabric's resistance to oily stains.

62
Objects:
 Soil release is the term used to describe the cleanibility of fabrics by the laundering process.
 The preceding chapter dealt with finishes that made fabrics more resistant to soiling; however, in
practice it has been found that soils have a way of penetrating even the best of repellent finishes,
the textile item must be cleaned anyway.
 From a consumer point of view, a stain is perceived to be the worst case of soiling.
 With use fabrics tend to develop a n overall grey and dingy look and this too is undesirable.
 But unless the consumer has the original fabric to compare with, the loss of whiteness is not
objectionable unless it is severely discolored.
 A visual stain on the other hand, even a mild one, is more objectionable.

SOILS AND TYPES OF IT:

Soils can be defined as unwanted substances at the wrong place. Most common Soils fall into
one of four categories:
1. water borne stains,
2. oil borne stains,
3. dry particulate soils and
4.composite soils involving oil and grease adsorbed on Particulate matter.

 Water borne stains are not much of a problem, the stains are soluble in the wash water. Food
stains and dried blood, although not water soluble, are responsive to proteolytic enzymes found
in most commercial detergents.
 Dry Particulate soils such as flour, clay and carbon black are mechanically entrapped in the yarn
interstices and reside on the surface of the fiber.
 Removal of particulate soils depends on overcoming the work of adhesion between the particle
and the fiber surface, facilitating the transport of detergent solution to where they reside and
transporting the particle into the wash water.
 Mechanical energy (agitation) is important for latter. Oily soils, e.g. salad oil, motor oil, food
grease are particularly difficult to remove from synthetic fabrics such as polyester. The sorption
forces between the oils and the synthetic fiber surfaces are so strong that it is virtually impossible
to completely remove them by conventional laundering.
 For this reason oily soils, a s a group, are particularly difficult to remove from many washable
fabrics made from 100% polyester and polyester blends.
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  Lipstick, make-up, printing ink, used motor oil and atmospheric soot are examples of composite
soils where bonding to the fiber is a function of the oily component.
 The removal of these stains is accomplished by overcoming the sorptive forces between the oil
carrier and the fiber.

How Fabrics are Soiled i.e. Mechanism of soil impingement:

 Soil can be airborne particles that settle by gravitational forces or are electrostatically attracted to
the fabric.
 Soot is a troublesome airborne particulate that is difficult to remove from fabrics. Drapes, carpets
and upholstery are items prone to being soiled by airborne soils.
 Soils can transfer by contact with a dirty surface and they can be ground in by pressure or
rubbing.
 Soils can also transfer by wicking, liquid soils in contact with fabrics will wick into the structure
by capillary action.
 Soils removed in the laundering process may redeposit back onto the fabric, emulsified oily soils
may break out of solution unless the emulsion is well stabilized.
 Also the ionic charge of the emulsified soil may be attracted to an opposite charge on the fiber.

3.2 MECHANISM OF SOIL RETENTION:

A. Particulate Soil
 The adhesion between particulate soil and the fiber depends on the location
 Within the fabric structure, the forces of attraction between the soil and fiber, and the area of
contact.
 Studies have shown that a s more energy is used to grind the particulate soil into the fabric, the
more difficult will it be to remove it.
 Both the area of contact and the location within the fabric are influenced by the force.
 Removal of particulate soil is brought about by breaking the adhesive bond between the particle
and the fiber, wetting out the particle to make a stable dispersion, and then carry off the
dispersed particle into the bulk of the wash water.
 The greater the area of contact, the more difficult it is to break the adhesive bond.
 Fine particles have a greater area of contact.
 The tighter the fabric, the smaller are the interfiber voids which make also make the outward
transport more difficult.
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B. Oily Soils
 The basic interaction between a liquid and a solid was discussed in the previous chapter on
repellent finishes.
 It was shown that the thermodynamic work of adhesion is given by the Young/Dupree equation,
 From this it follows that liquids t h a t spread on a surface will have a zero contact angle. Since
the cosine of zero is 1, the work require t o remove t h a t liquid will two times the surface
tension of the liquid.
 Most oils have a surface tension of about 30 dynes/cm so they will completely spread on nearly
all fibers except Teflon.

3.2 MECHANISMS OF SOIL RELEASE

Removal of soils from fabrics has been attributed to several mechanisms. These are:
1 Adsorption of detergent and absorption of water leading to:
• Rollup of oily soil
• Penetration of soil–fibre interface by wash liquid
• Solubilisation and emulsification of soils.
2 Mechanical work leading to:
• Hydrodynamic flow carrying away the removed soil
• Fibre flexing to force soil from between fibres
• Surface abrasion to remove soil physically
• Swelling of finish to reduce inter-fibre spacing.
Of these mechanisms, solubilisation and emulsification of soils are controlled by detergent composition,
hydrodynamic flow is controlled by washing machine design and fibre flexing is controlled by fabric
construction. The textile chemist can only influence the mechanisms that involve the fibre surface, i.e.
rollup of oily soil, penetration of soil–fibre interface, surface abrasion and finish swelling.

Finishes have been developed that provide soil release performance by taking advantage of all
of these mechanisms. Particulate soil is removed from fibres by a two-step process. First, a thin layer of
wash liquid penetrates between the particle and the fibre surface, enabling surfactants to adsorb onto the
particle surface (Fig. 7.1). Then, the particle becomes solvated and is transported away from the fibre
and into the bulk of the wash liquid by mechanical action. Finishes that are hydrophilic (enhancing
penetration of the fibre–soil interface) with low adhesion to soil under washing conditions should
65
improve particulate soil release. Ablative or sacrificial finishes that leave the fibre surface during
washing and take the soil particles along with them can also benefit particulate soil release.
For the most part however, the removal of particulate soils is determined by detergent
composition and mechanical action.

 Finishes that are hydrophilic (enhancing penetration of the fibre–soil interface) with low
adhesion

*to soil under washing conditions should improve particulate soil release.
 Ablative or sacrificial finishes that leave the fibre surface during washing and take the soil
particles along with them can also

*benefit particulate soil release.

 For the most part however, the removal of particulate soils is determined by

*detergent composition and mechanical action.

 Oily soils that are liquids at wash temperatures are released by a ‘roll up’ mechanism (Fig.
7.2),

 if the surface free energies of the fibre and oil have the relationship indicated by:

where R is the resultant force of the interfacial energies between the fibre and the oil

the fibre and the wash liquid, and the oil and the wash liquid,

66
Roll-up Thermodynamics
The surface forces responsible for three phase boundary between fiber- detergent and oil can be
represented a s interfacial tension vectors shown in figure The forces responsible for roll-up is the
resultant (R) of interfacial tensions a s expressed by the equation:

Soil-release chemistry
Finishes providing soil release can be classified in numerous ways, by method of application, by
fibre type used with them, by chemical structure, electrical charge and so on. Here, chemical structure
will be used.

Carboxy-based finishes
Some of the earliest carboxy-based finishes were developed to be used in conjunction with
durable press finishes on cotton and cotton blend fabrics. The first patent appeared in 1969. The
composition of these finishes is based on acrylic and methacrylic acid and ester copolymers (Fig. 7.4).
An ester to acid ratio of ~70:30 is typical. This ratio seems to provide the proper blend of hydrophilicity
and oleophobicity (hydrophilic–lipophilic balance, HLB) required for a soil-release finish. The HLB
scale is often used for the preselection of surfactants and ranges from about 0 (very hydrophobic) to
nearly 20 (very hydrophilic). For good soil release performance, HLB values of about 15 are favoured.
But this is only a rough orientation, because the important copolymer block arrangements are not
expressed by these HLB values. Greater hydrophilicity would strongly reduce durability to laundering.
These products are usually pad applied in combination with DMDHEU and provide soil release by a
finish swelling mechanism (Fig. 7.5).The ease of incorporating different acrylic monomers into
copolymers has led to a wide variety of available finishes. Often a monomer such as N-methylol
acrylamide that can react easily with DMDHEU during the finish curing step is added for increased
laundering durability. For these finishes to be effective, about 2.5 % solids add-on of the soil- release
polymer is necessary. Other carboxy polymers that have been used as soil-release finishes include
styrene–maleic anhydride copolymers and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC).

67
HYDROXY-BASED FINISHES
One of the earliest soil-release materials was starch, which functioned as a sacrificial treatment.
Other starch- and cellulose-based products that have been used as soil-release agents include methyl
cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl starch, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose
and hydrolysed cellulose acetates. With some exceptions, these finishes lack the laundering durability

68
desired in a finish expected to last the life of a garment and must be applied in combination with a
binder or crosslinking agent.

NON-POLYMER SOIL-RELEASE TREATMENTS

Alkali and plasma treatments of polyester generate a more hydrophilic fibre surface by forming
new carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. Under alkaline washing conditions the carboxyl structures become
anionic carboxylate groups, giving rise to high electrostatic repulsion of the negatively charged soil
particles both in pure form and those enclosed in anionic surfactant micelles.

DUAL ACTION FLUOROCHEMICAL SOIL RELEASE

 A unique block co-polymer, developed by the 3M company (Scotchgard Brand
 Dual-Action Fabric Protector) combines oil repellency with soil release.
 While conventional fluorochemical water and oil repellent finishes have a n adverse affect on
soil release, the co-polymer overcomes this deficiency.
 The hybrid polymer backbone is comprised of segments based on polyoxyethylene united with
segments containing long-chain perfluoroaliphatic groups. Figure 59 shows the structure of the H
portion (the hydrophilic portion), the F portion ( the perfluoroaliphatic portion) and the block co-
polymer.
 The H section is a sulfhydryl-terminated co-polymer of tetraethylene glycol dimethacrylate and
hydrogen sulfide containing 50% by weight of recurring ethylene oxide units.
 The F section contains poly(N-methylperfluoro- octanesulfonamidoethyl acrylate).
 The block co-polymer has recurring units of perfluoro acrylate portion attached to the sulfhydryl-
terminated glycol dimethacrylate.
 The individual segments alone do not confer effective soil release; however, when combined into
a single molecule, the new composition is effective both as a soil release agent and an oil
repellent finish.
 Durable press reactants are necessary to cross-link the finish.

Mechanism
 The uniqueness of this material is related to the tendencies of non-polar perfluoro alkyl side
chains to orient outward towards air.

69
  During the drying and curing stage, polymer mobility allows the tails to orient outward. The
oxyethylene segments are forced to the interior of the film and so the outermost film layer is
richly populated by the low interfacial energy perfluoro segments.
 This provides a low critical surface tension which favors oil repellency.
 In water, the polyoxyethylene segments swell, causing the polymer to "flip-flop".
The surface is now hydrophilic favoring the release of soil.

HYDROPHILIC SOIL-RELEASE FINISHES FOR 100% POLYESTER

 Effective soil release finishes have been developed for 100% polyester fabrics which are best
applied during the dye cycle and are often called Exhaustible SR finishes.
 The are also called Co-Crystallizing SR finishes.
 This class of SR chemicals are composed of water dispersible, low molecular weight block co-
polymers which have recurring blocks of hydrophilic segments attached to short blocks of PET.
 The hydrophilic segment is either polyoxyethylene or sulfoisophthalic acid.
 The PET portion provides attachment to the polyester fiber surface through secondary forces.
 The most effective application conditions are the same as those for exhaust dyeing polyester
fibers with disperse dyes.
 This method results in a uniform deposition of the finish on the fiber surface.
 Pad applications are sometimes used; however, thermosoling temperatures are needed to get
fixation.

NON-IONIC DETERGENTS
 Non-ionic detergents based on polyoxyethylene have the unique feature of becoming less soluble
as the temperature rises, exhibiting a cloud point.
 Cloud point temperature is based on the structure of the surfactant molecule.
 At this temperature the surfactant is, for all practical purposes, another water insoluble oil.
 As a non-dispersed oil, it is capable of adsorbing onto the fiber surface and either co- mixing
with the oily soil or adsorbing onto the surface of particulate soil.
 When the temperature drops below the cloud point, the ether linkages again form hydrogen
bonds with water and the molecule resumes surfactant qualities.
 The phase-change induced adsorption of the surfactant onto the fiber and soil promotes the
thermodynamic boundary interfacial tensions which favor spontaneous soil release. compares the
detergent qualities of anionic, cationic and non-ionic surfactants.
70
  The soil was deposited on four polymer films representing different fibers.

3.3.4 EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY OF SOIL RELEASE

AATCC Method 130
 In this test, oily stains are placed on the fabric, laundered and visually rated for the severity of
the remaining stain on a scale of one-to-five.
 The visual judgement is based on contrast, what the eye perceives to be the difference between
the stained area and the rest of the fabric.
 There are variations of the test where a number of different staining materials are used.
Regardless of the stain, judgement is still what the eye perceives.
 Some refinements have been attempted where optics are used rather than humans to make the
judgement.
 From a practical point of view? These tests duplicate what the consumer does. However, from a
scientific point of view, the data may be misleading or inconclusive since the quantity of soil
removed is what's important.
 The intensity of the residual stain may or may not reflect the amount of soil remaining since it
may be influenced by other factors.
 For example, the amount deposited on the spot may spread over a wider area during laundering
and while it hasn't been removed, the intensity of the stain is less allowing one to conclude that
less soil remains.
 Also there may be light scattering bodies in the fabric which affect the visual appearance of the
stain and misleads one as to the amount of soil removed.

2. Release Point
 Release Point (Rp) is defined a s the surface tension of a detergent solution where oily soil just
separates from fiber surfaces.
 This technique for quantifying soil release is based on thermodynamic considerations which state
that the work of adhesion (the quantity ) must be overcome by the detergent for oily soil to
separate from a solid surface.
71
  In a detergent solution, when the contact angle becomes 180 degrees and the oil just separates
from the fiber, the interfacial tension between the oil/detergent will equal the work of adhesion.
 The quantity surface tension of a adhesion between th is influenced by the adsorbed surfactant.
 Therefore the bath where release just occurs is proportional to the work of ie oil and fiber
surface.

a. Rp Determinations
The surface tension of a solution where oil just separates from a surface can be closely approximated by
exposing the soiled surface to a series of solutions with decreasing surface tension.

b. Application of Rp Measurements
 The Rp technique has been used to study the relationship between hydrophilic SR agents applied
to a variety of 100% polyester fabrics.
 The test was conducted statically and dynamically.
 I n the static test, the soiled samples were placed in the surfactant solution at room temperature.
 The dynamic test consisted of carrying out the observations in a n ultrasonic bath. compares the
data obtained on a series of SR treated polyester fabrics.
 Knit and woven fabrics made from the same feed yarn, textured and untextured, were tested both
statically and dynamically.
 The same treated fabrics were stained and laundered.
 Afterwards, the amount of residual soil was determined by quantitative extraction.

3.4 ANTIPILLING FINISHING

PROBLEMS CAUSES DUE TO PILL FORMATION:

Pilling is a condition exhibited by certain fabrics made from spun yarns. Balls of lint are firmly
attached to the fabric's surface and when the condition is severe, the fabric becomes visually

72
unappealing and irritating to the touch. Spun fabrics made from 100% synthetics fibers, i.e. acrylics and
polyesters, or blends of polyester/cotton are prone to pill.
The pill in a polyester/ cotton blend is made up of twisted, loose fibers still attached to the parent
yarn by one or more anchor fibers. Usually the anchor fibers are polyester filaments that have partially
worked their way out of the spun yarn. Pill formation is a function of rubbing against the fabric so pills
are mostly found in garment areas where rubbing is most prevalent, i.e. areas near pockets, collars and
cuffs.
The .most common laboratory test method for predicting a fabric's pilling tendency is the
Random Tumble Pill Rating method. Squares of fabric are tumbled against a cork lining in a n
accelerator for specified periods of time. The squares are visually rated against photographic standards,
see table 1. The number and severity of pills still attached to the surface determine the pill rating. While
the method has deficiencies, it will differentiate good fabrics from bad.

MECHANISM OF PILLING

The propensity of a fabric to be classified a s bad for pilling involves the equilibrium established
between two ongoing actions. The first action creates fuzz balls on the fabric's surface whereas the
second action breaks them off. If the rate of creation is greater than wear-off, the fabrics develops the
unsightly pilled condition. However if break-off rate is greater than the formation rate, the fabric will
appear to be pill-free.

1. PILL FORMATION

When the surface of a fabric is rubbed, pills develop because abrasion cause fibers to twist into
fuzz balls. Fabric surface hairiness is a condition brought about by hairy yarns. Yarn hairiness is related
to ease with which fibers migrate out of a spun yarn with one surface fiber end still firmly attached
within the yarn structure.

2. PILL BUILD-UP

73
 Pill build-up depends on the ease with which the fuzz ball break off. If the rate of break-off is
equal to the rate of formation, the fabric will appear to be pill free. However, if the rate of break-off is
less than the rate of formation then the fabric will exhibit noticeable pilling.
B. Factors Affecting Pilling tendency :
Experience has shown t h a t most 100% cotton fabrics are not prone to develop objectionable
pilling. Some cotton fabrics will become hairy and some pills will form, however, the rate of pill break-
off is greater than the rate of formation leaving the surface void of pills. The reason for this is because
cotton anchor fibers are relatively weak. Experience has also shown that some fabric constructions made
with polyester/cotton yarns will exhibit severe pilling. When these pills are magnified, the anchor fibers
are seen to be polyester filaments. The strong polyester anchor fibers do not break off easily so pills
continue to build up and not wear away.

1. Fiber Variables
a. Denier of Synthetic Fiber
Yarns made from fine denier synthetic filaments (1.5 dpf or finer) pill worse than yarns made
from course filaments (2.5 dpf or higher). The reason for this is because yarn twist imparts greater
cohesive forces onto larger diameter fibers than finer fibers. As the filiment denier decreases, the total
number of synthetic filaments in any given weight percentage of a blend increases. This creates many
more fiber ends that serve as anchor fibers. Finer fibers, because they are more limber, will move more
easily through a yarn assembly than will stiff, thicker fibers.

b. Fiber Tenacity
Fiber tenacity is a major contributor to fabric pilling because fabrics made from weaker synthetic
fibers pill less than fabrics made from their stronger counterparts. Synthetic fiber producers offer pill
resistant varieties which are based on lower molecular weight polymers which result in lower tenacity
and flex life. Low flex life alone is not enough to produce pill-free fabrics, fiber migration must also be
controlled.

2. Yarn Variables
a. Yarn Twist
Yarns with low twist will pill worse than yarns with high twist. The degree of twist will
influence the ability of fibers to migrate to the surface. The lower the twist, the easier it is for fibers to
migrate.
74
b. Hairy Yarns
Hairy yarns pill worse than smooth yarns. Low twist contributes to yarn hairiness.
c. Yarn Spinning Methods
Open-end spun yarns pill worse than ring spun yarns because the yarn structure is more uneven
allowing for greater fiber mobility. Air jet spun yarns with low flex life fibers result in relatively pill free
fabrics. Air jet yarns have wrapper fibers holding the yarn assembly together. These act to keep the body
fibers from migrating to the surface.
3. Fabric Construction
Tightly constructed knits and woven fabrics pill less than loosely constructed knits and wovens.
Tighter constructions reduce the migration tendencies of the fibers within the yarns.
C. Preparation and Dyeing
Preparation and finishing will have a profound effect on fabric pilling. Some wet processes make
pilling worse while others provide substantial improvement. Preparation and dyeing processes t h a t
overly work the fabric will cause excessive hairiness and lead t o poor pill performance. Long
preparation and dyeing cycles are especially bad. In some instances pills may be seen from just these
processes alone. High temperature dyeing of fabrics containing low flex life, high shrinkage fibers
improve pilling performance. Auxiliaries such as carriers also have a positive effect on these fibers.
D. Fabric Finishing
Finishing procedures have pronounced positive effect on fabric pilling. Many fabrics can be
improved by selection of proper finishing conditions.
1. Film Forming Binders
Finishing with film-forming latexes will improve the pilling performance of nearly all fabrics.
Whenever the final fabric hand will allow, these film-forming finishes may be considered the closest
thing to a universal solution for fixing fabrics prone to pill. These finishes reduce fiber migration by
bridging across filaments binding them together. About 1.5% solids deposited on the fabric is needed to
do much good. Latex binders applied to fabrics utilizing low flex life (pill resistant) fibers produce a
dramatic improvement in pill ratings. Whereas the base fabric alone would be only marginally better
than one made from conventional polyester fibers (still rated objectional), the latex finished fabric would
be virtually pill-free. The latex finished conventional fiber fabric would be improved but not to the same
degree and the low flex-life-fiber fabric.
2. Durable Press Reactants
Cellulose crosslinking resins applied t o low flex-life fibers also produce dramatic improvement
in pill rating. However, they have very little effect on conventional polyester fibers.
75
3. Fabric Softeners
Materials that reduce the coefficient of friction between fibers will make pilling worse. Fabric
softeners will increase the pilling propensity of a given fabric. Those applied after dyeing and/or in the
finish bath make matters worse. Laundry added softeners may also interfere with pill resistance. These
materials operate on the fiber migration portion of the pilling mechanism making it easier for the
filaments to move. Softeners co-applied with latexes tend to overcome the improvements noted with
film-former. Those softeners t h a t provide a soft hand (silicones, ditallow quats) are the worst
offenders.

3.4.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL METHODS TO REDUCE THE PILLING:

SHEARING AND CROPPING

Definition
Shearing is the process of cutting projecting hairs to give smooth and clean appearance by rising
knives and blades.
Objects
(i) To remove the projecting yarns and filaments from the surface of the fabric
(ii) To give clean and smooth appearance to the fabric.
(iii) To control pill formation.
.
Shearing is the process where a raised fiber is cut at an even height.Some spun fabrics are
sheared close to the fabric as a means of removing the raised hairs giving the fabric a clear, smooth
surface.Shearing is an alternative to singeing.
More often however, shearing follows napping to:
1. clear out random lengths offibers and produce a uniform and level pile.,
2. reduce the height of wild fibers and prevent pilling,
3. to produce a certain hand,
4. improve color and appearance and
5. produce sculptured effects.
 Knitted and woven fabrics with loops on the face or back are not necessarily
napped first - they can be sheared directly to cut off the tops of the loop and produce plushy velours
such as knit velours and plush towels.
 Terry looped bath towels can be sheared on one or both faces to produce a plush pile surface.
76
Shearing machines:
 The general purpose of shearing is to trim and remove the surface fibres in the fabric The
shearing process is also referred to as cutting and cropping,
 Fundamentally, the simplest machine operates in the same way as lawn-mover, with revolving
knives and an adjustable bedplate; very accurate setting is possible.
Multiple cropping and shearing machines are produced with up to five cylinders, but for fine worsted
and woollen fabrics three or four cylinder machines are commonly used. The process is continuous and
speeds of 8 to 20 yards per minute are obtained

Shearers
 The shearer head consists of a spiral blade revolving on its own axis in contact
 with a ledger blade.
 This creates a shearing action similar to that produced by a pair of scissors.
 When fibers are presented to this cutting head, they will contact the ledger blade and be cut off
by the rotating blade.
 The fabric travels over a cloth rest (bed) in front of the ledger blade and the design is such that an
acute angle is formed by the fabric.
 This sharp angle causes the pile to stand erect and be more easily cut.
 The distance between the bed and the ledger blade is adjustable so the height of the
 pile can be regulated.
 Most shearers are equipped with expander rolls to straighten and flatten the fabric as it
approaches the bed and a vacuum system to remove the lint produced at the cutter.
 Specially designed support beds, i.e. embossed rolls in place of the support bed, endless
embossed support aprons acting as support rests are available for producing sculptured patterns
on high pile fabrics.
 Variations can produce stripes, zig-zag, checks etc.
 Very often the fabric is brushed prior to shearing.
 The object of brushing is to lay the fibers in one direction and thus facilitate the cutting process.

77
Shearing Machine Schematic

HEAT-SETTING
Heat setting fabrics containing thermoplastic fibers is often beneficial in improving pilling
performance. For some fabric constructions, the improvement may be temporary and deteriorate after
multiple wash cycles. On the other hand, heat setting is a definite plus on those fabrics made with
synthetic fibers having higher heat shrinkage. When high heat shrinkage is combined with low flex life,
heat setting can enhance pilling performance to the point where the fabric appears t o be pill- free.

78
MERCERISATION:
Improves the tendency of pilling.

CAUSTICISATION
Polyester and its blends with the other fibres improves the resistance towards the pilling.

3.4.2 EVALUATION OF ANTIPILLING FINISHING

1) Brush and sponge test

2) ICI Pill tester ( ISO Procedure )

The propensity of a fabric to be classified a s bad for pilling involves the equilibrium established
between two ongoing actions. The first action creates fuzz balls on the fabric's surface whereas the
second action breaks them off. If the rate of creation is greater than wear-off, the fabrics develops the
unsightly pilled condition. However if break-off rate is greater than the formation rate, the fabric will
appear to be pill-free.

Based upon the pills formed in the cloth after a certain revolutions is counted and rating is been
given based upon the same as

Severly pilled
Medium
Lowest.

3.5 UV PROTECTION FINISHING

INTRODUCTION

79
 This topic tackles the prevention from harmful effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on
human skin. These effects were recognised in the early 1990s. Long term exposure to UV light can
result in acceleration of skin ageing, photodermatosis (acne), phototoxic reactions to drugs, erythema
(skin reddening), sunburn, increased risk of melanoma (skin cancer), eye damage (opacification of the
cornea) and DNA damage. Numerous publications have appeared concerning the use of textiles to
protect the wearer from these harmful effects; a selection are quoted. Solar radiation striking the earth’s
surface is composed of light waves with wavelengths ranging from the infrared to the UV.

Table 14.1 gives the wave lengths, relative intensities and average photon energies of this
radiation. Although the intensity of UV radiation is much less than visible or infrared radiation, the
energy per photon is significantly higher. The very high energy of the UV-C photons is mostly absorbed
by ozone in the higher regions of the atmosphere decreasing their relative intensity on the earth surface
to almost zero. But the energies of UV-A and UV-B photons that reach the earth surface exceed the
carbon–carbon single bond energy of 335 kJ mol, which is why UV radiation can be used to initiate
chemical reactions.
The actual damage to human skin from UV radiation is a function of the wavelength of the
incident radiation, with the most damage done by radiation less than 300 nm. If this erythemal effect is
multiplied by the intensity of the incident solar light, as a function of wavelength, the wavelengths of
maximum danger to skin are 305–310 nm. Therefore, to be useful in protecting the wearer from solar
UV radiation, textiles must demonstrate effectiveness in the 300–320 nm range. To quantify the
protective effect of textiles, the solar protection factor (SPF) is determined.
The SPF is the ratio of the potential erythemal effect to the actual erythemal effect transmitted
through the fabric by the radiation and can be calculated from spectroscopic measurements. The larger
the SPF, the more protective the fabric is to UV radiation. In Europe and Australia, the SPF is referred to
as the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). The SPF is also used with so-called ‘sun blocking’ skin

80
creams, giving a relative measure of how much longer a person can be exposed to sunlight before skin
damage occurs. Typically, a fabric with an SPF of > 40 is considered to provide excellent protection
against UV radiation (according to AS/NZS 4399: Sun protective clothing – Evaluation and
classification, Standards Australia, Sydney). It is possible to realise about 80 % of the theoretical
maximum of SPF 200.
Since the most probable time for long-term solar exposure is in the summer, the most likely
candidates for UV protective finishes are lightweight woven and knitted fabrics intended for producing
shirts, blouses, T-shirts, swimwear, beachwear, sportswear, and the like. Industrial fabrics designed for
awnings, canopies, tents and blinds may also benefit from a UV-protective treatment.

MECHANISM OF UV PROTECTION

When radiation strikes a fibre surface, it can be reflected, absorbed, transmitted through the fibre
or pass between fibres (Fig. 14.1). The relative amounts of

81
radiation reflected, absorbed or transmitted depend on many factors, including the fibre type, the fibre
surface smoothness, the fabric cover factor (the fraction of the surface area of the fabric covered by
yarns) and the presence or absence of fibre delustrants, dyes and UV absorbers. The effect of fibre type
on the SPF of undyed fabrics of similar construction is demonstrated in Table 14.2. Cotton and silk
fibres offer little protection to UV radiation since the radiation can pass through without being markedly
absorbed. Wool and polyester, on the other hand, have significant higher SPFs since these fibres will
absorb UV radiation. Nylon falls in between these extremes.
One factor influencing nylon and polyester absorbance is the presence of the delustrant TiO, a
material that strongly absorbs UV radiation. If the fibres absorb all of the incident radiation, then the
only source of transmitted rays is from the spacing between the yarns. By definition, the theoreti- cal
maximum SPF is the reciprocal of 1 minus the cover factor.

Fig 14.2 illustrates the relationship between the maximum SPF and the cover factor. Using a SPF value
of 50 as the goal, a fabric with a cover factor of 0.98 and composed of fibres that absorb all of the non-
reflected UV radiation will provide its wearer with excellent protection against solar UV radiation. Of
course, tight micro-fibre fabrics provide a better UV protection than fabrics made from normal sized
fibres with the same specific weight and type of construction. Many dyes absorb UV radiation as well as
visible light.
A cotton fabric dyedto a deep shade can achieve SPF values of 50 or higher just from the
presence of the dye.
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 Since fashion and comfort often dictate the use of lightly coloured fabrics for summer apparel,
the need arose for UV absorbing materials that could be applied to fibres to provide the desired SPF
values in light shades. Dyestuff and auxiliary manufacturers have responded by developing a variety of
materials suitable for use as UV protection finishes.

CHEMISTRY OF UV PROTECTION FINISHES

The requirements for a material to be effective as a UV protection finish include efficient
absorption of UV radiation at 300–320 nm, quick transformation of the high UV energy into the
vibration energy in the absorber molecules and then into heat energy in the surroundings without
photodegradation. Further requirements are convenient application to textile fibres and lack of added
colour for the treated fibre. Some typical chemical structures useful for UV protection are shown in Fig.
14.3 and Fig. 14.4.

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 The reversible chemical reaction, induced by UV absorption of hydroxyphenyl structures of UV
absorbers. (Fig. 13.6). By careful choice of substituents, molecules can be formed that have the required
absorbance of UV radiation, lack of added colour and the necessary affinity to fibres and fastness. In
most cases, the UV absorber is applied with the dyes during

84
3.5.1 EVALUATION OF UV PROTECTION FINISHES
Several organisations around the world have developed or have proposed performance standards
for UV protection fabrics. These organisations and their standards are summarised in Table 14.3

3.6 ANTISTATIC FINISH:-

 Antistatic agents are used to minimize static build up in synthetic fibers/fabric.
 It increases fiber surface conductance
e.g. →Polyethylene glycol with mono or dieters with lauric, oleic or stearic acid. Salts of
high molecular weight fatty amide-fatty alcohol ethylene oxide condensate Dialkyl dim ethyl

85
 ammonium chloride where alkyl being C8 – C18 chains stearamides of high polyethylene
amines are some of antistatic agents.

The synthetic fabric is given a finish to prevent the static charge generation. This is known as
Antistatic Finish
Static charge on fiber or need for antistatic finish

The factors that facilities the static charge on fiber are two a follows
1. low moisture regain
2. lower conductance or bad conductivity

The moisture regain of various fiber as follows

FIBER MOISTURE REGAIN LOG OF SPECIFIC AREA
RESISTIVITY(SAR)
1. Viscose rayon 12 7
2. Cotton 8 7
3. Acetate 6 12
4. Polyamide or Nylon 4 12
5. Polyacrylic or Acrylic 1 14
6. Polyester 0.4 14
7. Polyvinyl acetate 0 16
The lower is the log SAR is lowers the static charge accumulation.
Water reduces accumulation of static charge therefore moisture regain of the fibre is important in
dissipating static.

Moisture content
Nylon-3.5%
Polyester -0.4%
Acrylic-1.6 %

Cellulosic fibers
There fiber are good conductors & contain sufficient moisture don’t produce static charge
because charges generated leak away through moisture to earth
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Synthetic fiber
Synthetic fibers such as polyester, polyamide and acrylic exhibit two undesirable properties that
can be attributed to their hydrophobic nature
a. They accumulate static charges on their surfaces
b. They attract soil easily
c. During spinning, weaving & finishing of yarn & fabric, fricti will be created by rubbing
therefore hydrophobic & being not a good condors tends to develop static charge.
d.
Problems of static charges generation
1. It can produce sparks which are dangerous to workers in coal mines or ammunition factories.
2. Operators operating machines may get electric shocks.
3. It attracts countless minute particles of dirt from the air & gets soiled. Which is difficult to
remove(particularly garment)
4. The fabrics get enlarged or stick when they are drawn
5. During melt spinning of polyester & nylon filaments static attraction causes breakages.
6. The yarn may balloon during the winding processes as a result of similarly charged individual
filaments repelling each other.
7. Carpets made of synthetic fibers give unpleasant electric shocks to anyone walking over them
They are finished with antistatic agents to overcome this limitations or problems.

Two approaches that are likely to solve the problem of static accumulation on synthetic materials are
a. Avoiding the generation of static charge
b. Increasing the rate of dissipating of the generated charge
The reduction by rate of dissipation or the total avoidance of the generation of static charges is rather
difficult.
Another way antistatic property can be brought out
1. By reducing the charge
2. By increasing the surface conduction power
3. By making the fiber hydrophilic

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Antistatic Agents
Most of the antistatic finishes are based on mechanism i.e. Reducing the charge & increasing the
surface conductance.

The essential properties of antistatic agents

1. It must possible to apply filament, yarn or fabric ie. To any stage of textiles.
2. It should have hygroscopic nature to maintain moistance on the surface.
3. It should be in ionized state so as to make their soluble in water & removed during washing.
4. It should not be sensitive to other auxiliars.
Some of agents used for this purpose are silicone emulsions, PE emulsions, PE crlycols, Fatty acids
condensed with glycerine & ethylene oxide, Acrylic polymers, silicones & Theoro chemicals melamine
formaldehyde resin with polyethylene oxide poly ammonium quaternary salts.
Commercial names of some of there are cirrasol PT (ICI) ceramine R, ANS(sandoz) Antista oil, antista
D.M(Ahura chemical products) Antistatic oil, Antista D (Hico products Lts.,) antistatin C,D & M
(BASF)

The stages of application is formed as

1. Before manufacture (during manufacturing itself)
2. After manufacture

According to this method of applications as following

1. By modifying polyester, nylon or acrylic fiber by incorporating non-durable antistatic agents into
polymer during manufacture of synthetic fiber or immediately after the polymerization reaction.
2. By applying either non-durable or durable A.A on the filament or yarn or fabric.
3. Another method is to develop new antistatic fibers blend a small proportion of antistatic fibers
with conventional synthetic fibers.
The application or incorporation of an A.A after polymerization by the chips coating method is
preferred.

Antistatic agents are applied either by

1. Exhaust method
2. Pad-dry cure method

88
Types of Antistatic agents
Durable - withstand even unclean ordinary usage
Non-durable - Used in the stage spinning & drawing & its is removable.

3.6.1 EVALUATION OF STATIC CHARGE ON FIBERS

Three typical standard methods for the evaluation of static charges on textiles are described
below
Measurement of electrical resistivity
1. The yarn or fabric specimen is conditioned for 4-24 hrs at 24 C & 40% R.H
2. The residual surface charge on the specimen is removed by passing a radioactive metal bar over
the sides of the sample
3. The electrical resistance of the specimen is then measured using an electrical resistance meter
4. The electrical resistivity (R) in then computed.
5.
In case of yarn, the resistance values of n specimens are measured & resistivity is computed in n ohms
®/cm/strand of yarn by using the formula
R = S/D (r1+r2+…. +rn)/n
R=resistivity in SL/cm/strand
S=number of strands/specimen
D=distance of individual specimens
n=number of specimens tested
r=resistance of individual specimen

Electrostatic clinging of fabrics fabric to metal test

1. The conditioned fabric sample is kept on a metal plate & is rubbed 12 * with a rubbing block
with an attached rubbing nylon or polyester fabric
2. The tendency of the fabric to cling to the metal plate is then determined.

Dirt pickup test

1. The test specimen is rubbed 10 * with a woolen cloth and is held 2.54 cm above an open
container of synthetic soil for 10 sec
2. The amount of attracked dirt is estimated visually an grades are given
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3. Synthetic soil – 20% coal ash, 40% pigment grade carbon black & 40% bone charcoal
4. Each of which is ground fine enough to pass through a woo mesh screen before mixing.

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 UNIT - IV

4.1 MECHANICAL FINISHING:

It is also known as Physical Finishing.

If the finishing effect is produced only by machines, then this type of finishing is called as
Physical or Mechanical finishing.

In this type, two types of finishing can be done. They are

 Temporary mechanical finishing.

 Permanent mechanical finishing.

Some mechanical finishes like calendaring, schreinering, embossing, glazing, breaking,

stretching etc are examples for Temporary mechanical finishing.

Some mechanical finishes like various raising & shearing processes, Sanforizing etc are
examples for Permanent mechanical finishing.

Various mechanical Finishing:

 Drying Range,
 Calendering,
 Sanforizing,
 Compacting,
 Stenter,
 Crabbing,
 Brushing,
 Blowing & Decatising
 Rotary Press,
 Raising,
 Breaking,
 Shearing

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4.1.1 CALENDARING

Calendaring is a process where fabric is compressed by passing it between two or more rolls
under controlled conditions of time, temperature and pressure. A calendar is a machine consisting of two
or more massive rolls which are compressed by means of hydraulic cylinders applying pressure at the
journals. One roll is considered the pattern roll and is responsible for the finished appearance of the
fabric while the other roll is called a bowl and serves as the pressure back-up for the pattern roll and also
serves to transports the fabric through the machine. There are many types of calendars, each designed to
impart specific effects to cloth. The composition of the rolls, number of passes, temperature controls,
moisture control and pressure can vary to fit the desired effect. For example, the pattern roll can be
engraved and serve to emboss a three dimensional pattern into the fabric. The
engravings can be shallow or deep depending on the desired effect. The pattern roll can be smooth,
made of steel or nylon to give the fabric a high luster and sheen. The backing bowls can be made from
corn husks, kraft paper, hard or soft rubber and deform to receive the pressure of the pattern roll. In
calendaring, the yarns are flattened and become more oval in shape. This causes them to spread in two
dimensions and closes up the fabric structure, leaving less open spaces between the
yarn crossovers. In the process, the fabric becomes thinner and more lustrous.
The reason fabrics are calendared is to improve aesthetics.
The major fabric changes are: 1. reduced fabric thickness. 3. increased fabric luster, 3. Increased
fabric cover, 4. smooth silky surface feel, 5. reduced air porosity and 6. Reduced yarn slippage.

Types of Calendars
The type of calendar used depends on the type of cloth to be run and what the desired effect is to
be. There are embossing calendars, friction calendars, swizzing calendars, chase calendars, and
compaction calendars. The difference between them is the number of rolls and the drive system.
1. Swizzing Calendars
Swizzing is a British term used to denote that the fabric runs through all of the nips at the same
surface speed as the rolls. Swizzing calendars usually consists of seven to ten bowls and are run at
ambient temperatures. The fabric effect is closed interstices, a smooth appearance and gloss without the
high glaze characteristic of a friction calendar. A schematic of 7 bowl calendar is shown in figure

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2. Chasing Calendars
Chasing calendars are similar to swizzing calendars. The major difference is that the thread-up is
such that the cloth makes several passes through the nips before it exits to a take-up roll. This is done by
having cloth pass over chasing rolls which feed it back through the nips. The cloth is compressed against
itself with as many as 5 to 6 layers being in a nip. This gives the cloth a thready-linen appearance and a
soft special feel.

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Friction calendar:
For producing this effect, the top four bowls of a 7 bowl calendar can be lifted up, disconnected
the contact b/w the third and the fourth bowls so as to use only three bowls.
The three bowls calendar, one of which is cotton and the other two are of chilled iron.

Top 1500 rpm

Middle 750 rpm

Bottom 1000 rpm

It is generally run at a speed of 32mts/min.

Schreiner calendar:
It is a special calendar which produces a beautiful silk like Lustre in cotton fabric by embossing
fine lines on it and it is there fore also know as silk finish. The metallic bowl is heated by gas usually at
150¢C. The top bowl is fixed and the lower is movable. Its speed is 10-25mts/min.
Felt calendar:
Light weight cotton goods like super fine dhoti’s, sarees, rollers etc., are finished on this m/c.
here the cylinder is used for both drying and finishing. The main cylinder is 6-8 feet in diameter made
up of tinned sheet iron or stainless steel. The cylinder is heated by steam and rotates freely. Before
feeding the fabric to this m/c, the fabric is passed through a padding mangle for applying the finishing
mixture and then passed over an expander or a small stenter.
In addition to drying, it gives an attractive finish with soft feel and a smooth surface.
Speed of this machine is 30-40 mts/min.fabric width of 1-2.5 cm can be reduced by this machine.

4.1.2 COMPACTORS OR COMPACTING

Another method of compacting fabrics is with calendar rolls. The fabric passes between two
metal cylinders, one cylinder rotates faster than the other. The fabric is restrained by shoes that are
positioned against the cylinders. The fabric delivery cylinder rotates faster than the take-off cylinder and
the action is similar to stuffing a string into a straw. The friction causes filling yarns to move closer
together and a loss of fabric length.

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Friction Compacting Principle

The degree of compacting can be controlled by the differential speeds of the two calendar rolls.
Pac Nit II is a machine designed by Tubular Textile Company for tubular knits and operates
simultaneously on both layer of the tubular fabric as it passes through the unit.

Tubular Textile Machinery Co has also designed a wide version compactor (Model CS 2000)
that can handle single layers as wide as 90 inches. It is effective on open width knit goods such as tricots
and slit circular knits.

Tubular Knit Compactor

Tubular Textile Machinery Co has also designed a wide version compactor (Model CS 2000)
that can handle single layers as wide as 90 inches. It is effective on open width knit goods such as tricots
and slit circular knits.

95
Wide-Width, Single-Layer Compactor

3. Overfeed Pin Stentering

A third method of pre-shrinking fabrics is by overfeeding wet cloth onto the pins of a pin
stenter oven during drying or heat setting. Certain stenter frames are equipped with an auxiliary fabric
feed drive that is independent of the stenter chain drive. These devices deliver fabric at a faster rate than
the linear speed of the pin chains. The excess fabric is forced onto the pins by pinning wheels. Drying
forces causes the fabric to shrink so the fabric exits the oven in a pre-shrunken state.

4.1.3 RAISING

Raising is the term used to describe the creation of a pile surface on a fabric. Fibres are
deliberately pulled part way out of a yarn to give the fabric a hairy or fuzzy appearance and a soft
surface texture. Napping, sueding and shearing are techniques for developing a surface pile and in
96
conjunction with calendaring are lumped into a category referred to as Surface Finishing. Surface
finishing effects, especially raising, have been used for years to enhance the appearance and hand of
fabric. Many of the finest wool and cashmere fabrics are still mechanically finished - not only to
improve their hand and appearance but to increase their bulk, to impart the feeling of warmth, to
increase the number of fibre ends on the surface of the fabric, to provide improved adhesion for
laminating purposes and to improve the profit margin per yard sold. Many of the same techniques are
used to finish woven and knitted goods made from synthetic and synthetic blended fabrics. Sueding and
napping machines are used on both filament and spun constructions while shears, polishers, calendars
and decaters are used singly or in combination to create specific surface effects.

4.1.4 SANFORIZER

Introduction

Mechanical compacting is one method of reducing residual shrinkage. The process forces yarns
closer together and the fabric becomes thicker and heavier. As a result of this, the net yardage yield is
reduced. The term Sanforized is now generally accepted to mean a fabric that has low residual shrinkage
and the term Sanforizing is used to describe shrink proofing processes.

Effect of Sanforizing

The effect of Sanforizing can be seen in figure which shows that open fabric structure has been
closed up somewhat.

1. Sanforizing Range

The process, figure consists of a range where the fabric is first moistened with steam, to make it
more pliable, run through a short stenter frame to straighten and smooth out wrinkles, through the

97
compressive shrinkage head and then through a Palmer drying unit to set the fabric. The fabric is wound
into large rolls under minimum winding tensions. If the winding tension is excessive, the fabric will be
pulled out and the degree of compaction lessened. Usually, a lubricant is added in preceding operations
to assist in the realignment of the yarns as the fabric runs through the compactor. Selection of the proper
lubricant is critical for some fabrics.

(1). Let-off (2). Steamer (3). Pup Tenter (4). Sanforizer Head (5). Palmer Unit (6). Fabric Straightener
(7). Take-up

The key to any compactor is the head where force is applied to move parallel yarns closer
together. More fabric must be fed in than is taken off. A Sanforizer uses a thick rubber blanket running
against a steam heated cylinder as the compacting force. The thick rubber blanket first goes over a
smaller diameter roll which stretches the convex surface of the blanket. Fabric is metered onto the
stretched blanket and the fabric and blanket together come in contact with the steam heated cylinder. At
this point, the stretched rubber surface contracts to its original length and then is forced to contract an
additional amount as it forms the concave configuration of the heated drum. Since the fabric is not
elastic, an extra length of fabric is thrust between the rubber blanket and the heated cylinder. Friction
between the rubber blanket and steel drum force adjacent yarns to move closer together until the unit
length of fabric become equal to the unit length of rubber blanket it rests on. If the fabric construction
does not allow the yarns to move, the extra fabric will buckle developing creases and wrinkles.

Sanforizer Head

Figure shows a schematic of the compactor head and how the fabric and blanket moves
together. Heat is created by constantly stretching and relaxing the rubber blanket. The blanket is cooled
by spraying water on it after the fabric exits from the unit. Insets in figure also show the length
variations that occur as the blanket surface goes from convex to straight to concave.

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Sanforizer Head

The degree of shrinkage can be controlled by the thickness of the blanket. The thicker the
blanket, the greater is the stretched length at the bend. A longer length of fabric will be fed into the
compactor causing the degree of compacting to be greater. Conversely if the blanket is thinner, a lesser
degree of compacting will occur. Blanket thickness can be adjusted by means of a pinch roll
compressing the rubber blanket. This allows for some degree of "dialing in" the degree of compacting
desired. To be effective, the degree of compacting needed should be predetermined ahead of time. This
is done by characterizing the shrinking behaviour of the fabric by laundering. The degree of compacting
should not exceed the degree of shrinking otherwise over-compacting will cause the fabric to "grow"
when relaxed. This is as much a disadvantage as is shrinkage.

4.1.5 PEACH FINISH OF SUEDING

A sueder is sometimes referred to as a sander since the machine consists of one or more rolls
covered with sand paper as the abrasive. Fabrics travelling over these rolls develop a very low-pile and
the material's surface can be made to feel like-suede leather. The hand will depend on the fibre
composition, the filament count in the yarn and the intensity with which the fabric is worked. Filament
fabrics can be made to feel like a spun fabric and generally speaking, all fabrics will have a softer hand.

There are two basic categories of sueders, multi-cylinder and single cylinder machines.

99
1. MULTI-CYLINDER SUEDERS
The multi-cylinder machine usually has five rotating cylinders, each independently driven and
they can be - rotated clockwise or counter clockwise. Cylinder construction can vary between machines
made by different manufacturers. Some are abrasive covered rolls either free standing
or .as tubes mounted around the periphery of a rotating cylinder shaft. Others are fluted
cylindrical rolls with the high portions of the flutes covered with abrasive. Ahead and behind each
cylinder are adjustable idle rolls which control the pressure of the fabric to a greater or lesser degree
against -the abrasive cylinder. Entry and exit drive rolls transport and-control the fabric tension as it
progresses through the machine.

2. SINGLE CYLINDER SUEDER

The single-cylinder sueder has one abrasive covered metallic roll and one rubber covered
pressure roll. TO keep the abrasive covered cylinder from expanding from the heat generated' from
friction, water is circulated through the cylinder interior to keep it cool. The pressure roll presses the
fabric against the abrasive cylinder and is micrometer adjustable. The abrasion of the fibers on the
surface of the fabric-takes place in the nip between the pressure roll and the abrasive cylinder.

3. ABRASIVE COVERED ROLLS

The quality of the nap will depend on the fabric construction and selection of abrasive grit.
Fabric construction will determine the abrasive grit size, the wrong grit may over sand the fabric and
either weaken woven fabrics or perforate knit. fabrics. Since the abrasive material deteriorates with use,
it must be changed on a regular basis to guarantee uniform suede throughout a production run.
A new abrasive now available which last much kinger than the silica based paper. The abrasive
roll is made from diamond chips embedded in a Kevlar paper base.

Advantages and Disadvantages of sueding process

Both machine designs perform very well and produCe very acceptable products. However one
machine may have advantages over the other on a specific style. For example:

1. Fabrics with knots or slubs on their backsides, or fabrics with selvages thicker than the body
of the fabric are best run on a multi-cylinder machine. Knot holes or over-sanded selvages may occur on
the single cylinder. machine because the fabric is compressed against the abrasive -cylinder. This is not
the case with the multi-cylinder machine.
100
 2. A single roll sueder is more effective on fabrics with terry loops on the face that must be
broken. Also difficult styles that require shaving the face to develop a surface effect are effectively and
more efficiently sanded on a single cylinder machine. 3. Some fabrics tend to develop a directional
pile .when sanded on a single cylinder machine. The' multi-roll machine may . be operated with the
cylinders rotating opposing directions eliminating this effect.

4.2 HEAT SETTING

Heat setting is an important stage of synthetic processing. however many of the technicians
think heat settingis a simple process & no technicalities are involved since this process is nothing but
passing the fabric through stenter, which is a wrong notion.

Heat setting can be compared with that of mercerisation of cotton goods. at this stage it is
important to remember that cotton shrinks in water and looses its dimensional stability in water and
heat, on the contrary synthetics like polyester and nylon looses their dimensional stability only in heat.
therefore it necessitates us to stabilize these fibres to heat, since all the processing of these fibres are
carried out at higher temperatures normally above 100 c.

We know that pes is dyed at 140c on beam and jet dyg m/c’s and at 190c in thermosol dyeing
menthod and we experience that during home laundering also temperatures above 100c are employed
usually. therefore unless and until pes is stabilized to these temperatures it is difficult to process this
fibre, and heat setting is the process of bringing dimensinal stability to pes to suit to processing
conditions.

What Is Heat Setting ?

Heat Setting is the process of subjecting the pes to such temparatures which are not attained in
normal processing conditions, under control, while allowing it shrink; for a specific period.

the temp is --------------- 200c for normal pes & 180c for tex.pes
time ---------------------- 30 sec.

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allowed shrinkage-------- 4-6% on warp side & normally the final width of the
fabric on weft side which will be 1-1 ½ inch less than the
width prior to heat setting. which will also come to 2-3%
finally on weft side also.
machinery suitable-------- pin stenter only.

What happens to pes during heat setting ?

(structural changes taking place during heat setting )
a) Due to overfeed that is given on stenter at the rate of 4-6% the cloth forms loops in between
the pins on each pin bar and to that amount it shrinks on warp side.

b) due to setting of width ( which is the final finishing width required ) which is less than the
existing width, the fabric attains a loop state in weft direction of the fabric and shrinks to the
difference in pre and set width.

c) the crystalline and amorphous regions orient and pes chains get rearranged to the benefit of
the dyer. in fact the ratio of amorphous region to crystalline region increases. the
rearrangement takes place while the fabric is cooled in the cooling zone after subjecting it to
heat setting temperatures. therefore it is important to note that a stenter without a cooling
zone is unfit to carry out the heat setting process.

d) due to the change in the ratio of amorphous to crystalline region, the dyeability of pes
improves and in technical terms % exhaustion and in turn % dye taken up by the fibre
increases. the exhaustion and fixation curves before and after heat setting establishes the
fact.

102
graphs

200oC

180oC

150oC

crysrtaline region

e) the pes fabric will not shrink any more during the normal processing conditions and
laundering; unless and untill the same temparature that has been used in heat setting is
attained/ crossed for a period over and above the period set in heat setting.

It is very important to bear in mind that just setting the temparature and running the stenter at
caluculated speeds will not yeild the said results. it is therefore required to understand the quality
control methods / tests available to find out the efficiency of the carried out heat setting process.
What to be tested ?
 temperature
 time
 shrinkage in warp & weft
 ratio of amorphous region to crystalline region

how ?
A) Temparature:

Thermometer reading will not guarantee the tempararature. in fact it is the temperature that is
on the fabric is very important but not in the chamber of the stenter.

103
 It can be tested by using thermo papers which are readily available of various ranges. pin the
thermo paper on the fabric at both the selvedges and at the centre on the feed side and collect it at the
delivery side. the original thermo paper which is white in colour turns to black provided the
mentioned temparature for 30 sec. is available on the fabric.

It is important to remember that the paper turns to black even if the temperature is higher than
the mentioned temp. and therefore it necessitates one to check with twomore thermopapers; one that
of the lower tem. and the other that of the higher temp. than the temperature mentioned on the paper
used first. this confirms the exact temperature on the fabric.

B) time
As mentioned the time required is 30 sec. can be checked with the help of speed of the machine
set. the stenter speed can be set by knowing the number of chambers, where in each one is of 3 meters
in lenth, and if there are 6 chambers it amounts to 18 mts and to keep the fabric for 30 sec. at the set
temperature one has to run the machine obviously at the speed of 36 mts / min. ; which ensures the time
of heat setting.
C) shrinkage

Shrinkage is most important one and related with the over feed set on the machine. it is normal
practice to draw a 10 cm line with pen exactly at the centre and both the selvedges at the feed side and
and measure the length at the draw side. the difference known caluculated to % will give the %
shrinkage and it should be the same as the % over feed given on the machine.

This is normally carried out on warp side only and the weft side shrinkage is caluculated with the
measure of width at the feed side and delivery side. normally the finishing width is the width set at heat
setting and for all practical purposes width as required in finishing stage is only checked at delivery side.
However it is important to know –“ how to arrive at the over feed %”. over feed % figure is
arrived at by knowing the potential shrinkage of the pes, which is 5.5-6% in genaral.
However, the figure can be practically arrived at by subjecting the fabric to shrinkage test in the
laboratory, which in turn determines the overfeed to be given while heat setting. this figure and
overfeed and the actual shrinkage of the fabric after heat setting should be in co-relation.

104
 C. Ratio of amorphous region to crystalline region
Heat setting changes the internal structure of the pes fibre to the advantage of the dyer. the ratio
of amorphous region to crystalline region increases after heat setting. in other words more dye
exhaustion takes place per unit surface area after heat setting.

This can be tested by two methods.

One of the method is to dye un-heat set fabric and heat set fabric together in the same bath under
identical conditions and estimate the % of dye on the fibre. by finding out the difference in % of dye on
the fibre; one can directly correlate the same to that of % increase in the ratio of amorphous region to
crystalline region.
In another method developed by bitra known as iodine absorption method, the two samples
which are nothing but the fabric prior to heat setting and after heat setting are treated, separately, with a
known concentration of ki and and the libarated iodine is estimated as usual by titrating with sodium
thiosulphate using starch as indicator and the % increase in iodine absorption is directly co related to
increase in the ratio of amorphous region to crystalline region.

For a dyer in simple what’s the advantage of heat setting ?

Simply, the first one is dimensional stability and the other one is increased dye exhaustion.
The following graph illustrates the effect of heat setting on dye exhaustion
graph

fixation and exhaustion

105
_______________________ fixation
----------------------------------- exhaustion

one has to bear in mind that when heat setting of texturised pes is carried out, the heat setting
temparature has to modified to 180 c for obvious reasons of texturising which is carried out at a
temparature of 185c and if heat setting temparatures are above 180c the fibre will loose its property.

overfeed pin stenter

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4.3 FOAM FINISHING
Developed by union carbide corpn, gaston country machine co
History
The Processing of textiles in presence of foam has been practiced inadvertenly Much more
attention has been given to the development and use of foam control agents Soap lather in a batch
process for degumming and weighting of silk

SANCOWAD PROCESS
A low liquor ratio batch method of in situ foam generation to distribute dyes or finishing
chemicals
The main impetus for development of the sancowad process
Water conservation
Energy saving
Earliest continous foam application
Aqueous mixture of colorant , thickener ,emulsifier and foam stabilizer and applied it to textiles
by means of an engraved printing roll
Principle benefits
Reduce thickener requirement in printing
Better color yield than for conventional printing
Reduced drying energy
Foam application methods offer an inherent advantage due to the expanded volume

NEED FOR THIS TECHNOLOGY

In finishing process using liquid it is difficult enough to spread such a small amount evenly over
the surface of the area
It is 100 times more difficult to distribute it evenly in every fibre throughout its thickness.

The main objective of foam finishing is

 Reduce the energy consumption in finishing
 Wet pick up

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PRINCIPLE
To increase the surface area of this liquid to nearly match the surface area of the fibres the liquid
may be diluted with compressed air.
The incorporation of air produces such a dramatic change in the volume of the application liquor
that it can be laid on the surface of a fabric as a blanket of foam
The quantity of the applied can be controlled by varying this is the basis of foam application
technology

FACTORS HAVE TO MAINTAIN

Process relies on the maintenance of a specified foam density
Ability to maintain a layer of controlled thickness for controlling the quantity of the chemicals
applied
The accuracy of this control depends in the ability of the equipment in use to maintain the
specified density during the application
Slight changes in the chemicals can alter the foam characteristics and result in variations in
actual chemical pick up (disadvantage)

FOAM
A foam bubble may be considered as a means of separating out a very small quantity of
liquid.
In the form of a bubble, it provides a means of transporting this small quantity of the liquid
over a wet surface or dry surface
The bubbles burst and the liquid is absorbed by the fibres or moves by capillary attraction
into the inter-fibre spaces

Foams are of two types

1. That which is similar to an emulsion in which nearly spherical bubbles are reported by
thick liquid films
2. that which contains mostly gas phase separated by thin films or lamellae
The second type is of more important in foam finishing and the bubbles have polyhydral
shape.
In the centre of sample of foam the bubbles have 12 13 or 14 Faces.
Surface bubbles have 4,5or 6 faces
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 The desirable properties of the foam are obtained by a combination of a wetting agent and
foaming agent

LIGHT &DENSE FOAM

More wetting agent and less foaming agent produces a LIGHT foam
Less wetting agent and more foaming agent produces a DENSE foam

Foam and fabrics

Fabrics with high porosity generally are best treated with a dense foam(higher density or
lower blow ratio)
Fabrics with heavy and tightly constructed varieties are best treated with a light foam(lower
density or higher blow ratio)

PARAMETER
The uniformity of the foam depends on various parameters
 The ability of the foam to collapse into the fabric as it applied to the fabric is one of the
important parameters in foam finishing
 If the foam is too stable,it will collapse prematurely,wetting the fabric in blotches and
streaks.
 It also will not collapse evenly on the fabric
 The foam must have a uniform density while being applied onto the fabric
 The viscosity and flow of the foam should be such that uniform application is ensured
 The fabric has to be uniformly absorbent
 The equipment used for metering the foam must uniformly apply the foam.

Absorption of foam
The total time for full penetration of the substrate is less than about 1/1000 of a second
there will not be time for absorption into the fibres on the application side to be substantially greater
than absorption into the fibres on the back

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BLOW RATIO OR EXPRESSION RATIO
 The ratio of the volume of foam to that of the liquid in a foam preparation
 The blow ratio is determined by dividing the weight of a known volume of
a liquid finish by the weight of the same volume of foamed finish.
 This determines the wet pick up of a given fabric to which the foam is
suitably applied.

FOAMING AGENT
1. Surfactants are the most usual foaming agents
2. Surfactants used as wetting agents, bath stabilizers and emulsifiers also have foaming
properties.
3. Nonyl phenol-ethylene oxide condensate after sulphation and neutralization gives an efficient
foamer.
4. Soaps with shorter chain lengths such as sodium laurate and sodium myristate have very
good foaming properties.
5. Surfactants with 18 carbon atoms are the best foaming agents at temperatures near boiling
point
6. Linear alkaline derivatives such as sodium lauryl sulphate – effective foaming agents
7. Non ionic surfactants generally show less foaming effectiveness and produce less stable
foams than anionic surfactants

REQUIREMENT OF FOAM AUXILIARIES

 They must have the desired foaming qualities
 All the components of the mixture must be compatible with one another.
 Finishing agent should not inhibit the foaming properties.
 The residual foaming agents on the fabric should not interfere with the properties of the
finished fabric.

Foam stabilizers
 It slows down the drainage of the liquid from the bubbles and imparts workable
flow properties.
 Hydroxyethyl cellulose(HEC)
 Non ionic,
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  compactable with most anionic and cationic finishing components,
 salt catalysts do not interfere with the foam stabilizing property of HEC
 The foams stabilized with HEC have the desired rigidity and flow readily under force.
 HEC may be used in the concentration range of .2-.5% in durable press formulations.
 Methyl cellulose
 Polysaccharide gums
 Ammonium stearate are effective foam stabilizers
 Non ionic and anionic softeners and hand builders improve the foam ability and
stability of the finish.
 Polyethylene, acrylic latexes and certain silicones exert positive influences.
Fatty acid based softeners (cationic) and certain other silicones (amino functional) have
defoaming properties

PROCESS
Several forces promote the collapse of the foam into the fabric. thus absorbent fabrics
enhance the drainage of the liquid from the bubbles, which then become thin and finally collapse.

Factors affect foam stability

Temperature – increase in temperature reduces the foam stability

4.3.1 VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF FOAM FINISH

Machines or devices
Nip rollers and other frictional devices crush the foam
Finishing by foam application
Oil, water, and soil repellents and soil release agents are being applied to fabrics by
foam finishing techniques.

Durable press plus softener

water 52.3%
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 HEC 0.2%
DMDHEC 30.0%
Polyethylene emulsion 7.0%
Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.0%
Mgcl2 6H20 7.5%

Durable press plus softener and hand builder

Water 11.8%
HEC 0.2%
DMDHEU 60.0%
Polyvinyl acetate emulsion 6.0%
Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.0%
Mgcl2 6H20 15.0%

Durable press plus soil release

Water 51.0%
HEC 0.2%
DMDHEC 30.0%
Polyethylene emulsion 2.0%
Fluorochemical soil release agent 6.0%
Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.00%
Mgcl2 6H20 7.5%

Foam generators
Foam generation belongs to two groups
 Rotary (dynamic)
 Static

Rotary system
 It consists of a series of stator blades or axially mounted fingers rotating in a closed chamber.
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  A fixed amount of fluid containing the chemical system and air are accurately metered to the
foam generator, mixed and delivered through a smooth hose to the point of application.
 With the rotary mixer the size of the bubbles formed and the stability of the foam are related to
the blow ratio.
 If twice as much air is used, the bubbles will be relatively small in size, the foam more firm and
blow ratio higher.
 The mechanical action also affects the foam properties

Static foam generators

 The static foam generator consists of a pipe, which is packed with beads, stainless steel
shavings, plastic chips, etc.or with an internal series of baffles.
 Both air and liquid are metered into the head where they mix and produce the foam
 The liquid and air pressure system propel the foam to the point of application.
 A typical static foam generator has delivery rates of 120 and 500 litres/hour for
laboratory use and 1000,2000,4000, and 7000 litres/hour for production units.
 The significant feature of a static generator is that the bubbles are always of the same
size,irrespective of the quantity of air being delivered.
 In order to change the foam properties (say foam size), the packing should be changed
(bead size)
 Both air and the liquor system should be accurately metered to the foamer head, which
operates under pressure.
 The air used for generating foam should have oil and dirt particles before entering the
system since oil in the air acts as an effective defoamer
 The temperature at which the foam is generated also influences its character. (factors
influence foaming)
 All ingredients must reach the room temperature before foaming commences, since the
temperature easily influences the volume of air.

Foam applicators
 In one method of application of foam to fabrics uniform and consistent foam is generated
and a fixed amount of the foam is deposited on to the fabric being treated.
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  Both must be accurately controlled to achieve consistent results.

1. Knife
over roll

 The foam is deposited by laying it on the fabric surface, the knifing it to a fixed
thickness.
 The fabric then goes through the nip of two rolls to completely collapse the foam.
 A double floating knife coater is useful for applying two different finishes one each to the
face and the back.

2. Horizontal padder
 It is used to apply the foam to both the surfaces of the fabric
 With thick fabrics which are not sufficiently absorbent the horizontal padder is preferred, unless
only one sided application is desired. (Advantages)
 In the Gaston country/ union carbide (FFT) system, a specified amount of the active chemical
(durable press, soil release etc,) is delivered to a mixing head and then to the fabric, with
minimum dependence on small variations in the foam characteristics.
 The foam is applied in a pressurized zone through the slot of about 4 inches (10 cm) in the travel
direction of the fabric.
 The pick up of the foam system depends on whether a light or a dense foam is required.
 Since the penetration of the foam into the fabric depends in the air pressure in the system, this
process automatically adjusts itself if there is any variation in porosity of the fabric being treated.
 The control of chemical addition is much easier when it is added at a steady state to provide the
correct add on, consistent with the linear speed of the fabric.

4.3.2 DRAWBACK OF FOAM TECHNOLOGY

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  When a foam lies on the surface of a fabric, the fibres will absorb moisture from the foam,
so that the surface fibres in contact with the foam will contain a higher
concentration of the active chemicals than the underlying fibres.
 With thick fibres it may not be possible to get even distribution of the active chemicals
throughout the fabric thickness.
 Variations in fabric absorbancy result in variations in moisture and chemical uptake
 Trace of foam destroying surfactants and moisture content variations in incoming fabric
can significantly affect the actual uptake and distribution throughout the fabric
thickness
 The higher viscosity grades are efficient at very low conc,hence a small residual quantity
remaining on the fabric after drying and curing would have a minor influence on
the fabric properties

UNIT - V

5.1 STIFFNESS OF HAND BUILDING FINISH

INTRODUCTION

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 The hand building finish is not only one of the oldest but also one of the most important kind of
finishes. Very different natural and synthetic polymers are used for an astonishing variety of hand
effects. The main effects of fullness and stiffness enable a very interesting hand design, often in
combination with other finishes. Softness and hardness or stiffness are incompatible contrasts, but there
are – especially with the filling finish – many fluent transitions. Filling products can be combined as
well with softeners as with stiffening products
Finishes that add firmness to fabric hand are often called hand builders. Fabric hand was
discussed in detail in on softening finishes. Large quantities of hand builders are used today to improve
the hand of fabrics that are too flimsy, limp or raggy for either the customer, as point-of-sale finishes, or
subsequent processing, such as sewing or automated materials handling. These finishes are also used to
increase the weight of fabrics that are below weight specifications. With increased bulk, stiffness or
weight, the processability and marketability of these fabrics is increased. When a permanent finish is not
required, non-durable products can be used to provide a ‘counter finish’ for increased sale appeal. Hand
builders durable to repeated laundering and dry cleaning are employed for permanent effects.

DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

Hand builders can be roughly divided into two groups depending on the major effect on fabric
hand. One group adds fullness, which is a feeling of increased bulk or weight. The second group
provides stiffness or a resistance to bending. However, it is not always possible to make clear
distinctions because some stiffening products also yield a fuller hand and many products that add
fullness also provide stiffening effects, especially at high concentrations.

THE HAND BUILDING EFFECT

High molecular weight and especially the crosslinked hand builders tend to provide mostly
stiffness with some added fullness. This is due to their attachment at the fabric surface and accumulation
in spaces between yarns. Individual fibres and yarns are bound together, which accounts for the stiffness
observed. Smaller macromolecules penetrate more easily between individual fibres of the yarn bundle,
binding the fibres with a minimum of yarn-to-yarn connections and resulting in both fullness without a
high degree of stiffness. Crosslinkable products can provide both fabric fullness and stiffness that is
durable to laundering and dry cleaning.

Examples of textiles with hand building finishes

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 Stiffening with starch is often used after laundering shirts, blouses and table linens. An increased
fullness is frequently important for fabrics with low warp and fill densities, such as some lining, suit and
costume fabrics, overcoat poplin and also for pile fabrics, for example corduroy. Some stiffness and
fullness effects are necessary for laces and knitted dress fabrics. Even greater stiffness is usual for
selected denim articles, work clothes and industrial uniforms, such as some jeans, overalls, aprons and
lab coats. A full and stiff hand is demanded for mattress duck, tapestries and awning fabrics. Fabrics for
window treatments like blinds and curtains require a measure of stiffness. Many textiles receive a non-
durable stiffening finish for ease in cutting and processing. Some durable hand builders are also used as
pigment binders, binders for non-wovens, finishes for carpet backings, coatings for glass fibre fabrics
and as additives (for example adhesives) for other speciality finishes.

Non-durable hand building finishes

Hand building finishes that lose their effect after one or two launderings are considered non-
durable. The two major product types of non-durable hand builders are starch derivatives and polyvinyl
alcohol. Natural starch is produced commercially from potatoes, corn, wheat, rice and tapioca. Its two
maincomponents are polymers of α -glucose, amylopectin and amylose, shown in Fig. 4.1. The
thickening effect of starch is mainly due to the long and branched amylopectin chains. Polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) is a water-soluble polymer with a glass transition temperature, Tg , of 80 °C. Although its name
implies a homopolymer structure, the structure of commercial PVA is a copolymer of vinyl alcohol and
vinyl acetate as seen in Fig. 4.2.

PVA is made by the incomplete hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetate

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and several grades with varying degrees of hydrolysis are available. Incorporating N -methylol
crosslinking agents into PVA and starch formulations can increase the laundering durability of their
hand building effects. In addition to their use as hand builders, starch and polyvinyl alcohol are
important warp sizes.

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DURABLE HAND BUILDING FINISHES
Hand building finishes that retain their stiffening and fullness effects after repeated launderings
are considered to be durable. These products are usually aqueous emulsions of polymers that form
water-insoluble films on the fibre surface when dried. The three main types of products are vinyl
acetate-containing polymers, acrylic copolymers and thermosetting polymers.

Vinyl acetate-containing polymers include both polyvinyl acetate and ethylene- vinyl acetate
copolymers (EVA), as shown in Fig. 4.3. Polyvinyl acetate has a glass transition temperature of 30 °C
and provides a stiff hand to treated fabrics. EVA copolymers can yield a variety of hand effects
depending on the relative amounts of ethylene and vinyl acetate in the copolymer. Increasing the amount
of ethylene(Tg of polyethylene = –70 °C) in the copolymer will give products with increasingly softer
hand effects. Another vinyl polymer used for hand building is polyvinyl methyl ether (PVME) as shown
in Fig. 4.4. PVME has a low Tg, less than–20 °C and provides a very full hand. It is particularly useful
with rayon lining fabric.

The largest and most versatile group of hand builders is based on polyacrylate and
polymethacrylate chemistry. The general structures of acrylate and methacrylate polymers are given in
Fig. 4.5. Some of the more important individual polymers are listed in Table 4.1. From this table,
several trends concerning Tg are evident. Methacrylates have higher Tg values than the corresponding
acrylates, and the longer the alcohol group, the lower the Tg of the polymers. Fischer has shown that a
high Tg of polymers leads to a firm, stiff hand when they are applied to fabric and that a low Tg leads
to a softer, more flexible effect. The same relationship between Tg and stiffness is applicable to acrylic
emulsions used as print paste

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binders. Products with a low Tg value can be used to build up fabric weight and fullness without causing
the fabrics to become excessively stiff, while high Tg products can add fabric stiffness with only slight
weight gain. Indeed, the extremely high Tg (105 °C) of polymethylmethacrylate leads to its use as an
acrylic glass.
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5.2 SOFTENING FINISH

INTRODUCTION
Softening finishes are among the most important of textile chemical after treatments. With
chemical softeners, textiles can achieve an agreeable, soft hand (supple, pliant, sleek and fluffy), some
smoothness, more flexibility and better drape and pliability. The hand of a fabric is a subjective
sensation felt by the skin when a textile fabric is touched with the finger tips and gently compressed.
The perceived softness of a textile is the combination of several measurable physical phenomena such as
elasticity, compressibility and smoothness. During preparation, textiles can become embrittled because
natural oils and waxes or fibre preparations are removed. Finishing with softeners can overcome this
deficiency and even improve on the original suppleness. Other properties improved by softeners include
the feeling of added fullness, antistatic properties and sewability.

Disadvantages sometimes seen with chemical softeners include reduced crockfastness,

yellowing of white goods, changes in hue of dyed goods and fabric structure slippage

Mechanisms of the softening effect

Softeners provide their main effects on the surface of the fibres. Small softener molecules, in
addition, penetrate the fibre and provide an internal plasticisation of the fibre forming polymer by
reducing of the glass transition temperature Tg. The physical arrangement of the usual softener
molecules on the fibre surface is important and shown in Fig. 3.1. It depends on the ionic nature of the
softener molecule and the relative hydrophobicity of the fibre surface. Cationic softeners orient
themselves with their positively charged ends toward the partially negatively charged fibre (zeta
potential), creating a new surface of hydrophobic carbon chains that provide the characteristic excellent
softening and lubricity seen with cationic softeners. Anionic softeners, on the other hand, orient
themselves with their negatively charged ends repelled away from the negatively charged fibre surface.
This leads to higher hydrophilicity, but less softening than with cationic

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122
softeners. The orientation of non-ionic softeners depends on the nature of the fibre surface, with the
hydrophilic portion of the softener being attracted to hydrophilic surfaces and the hydrophobic portion
being attracted to hydrophobic surfaces.

Softener Selection Summary

The physical state of the softener/lubricant will govern the corresponding hand of a fabric. Low
viscosity lubricants are responsible for soft, pliable silky feel while solid waxes provide low coefficient
of friction without changing the. fabric's hand.
The softener material's initial color and/or propensity to develop color when heated or aged must
be considered when selecting the class of material to use.
The softener material's smoke point may cause processing problems. Fabric odors may be caused
by certain class of softener materials. Softeners can alter the shade of the fabric. Some react with the dye
to change it's lightfastness properties while some will cause the shade to become darker (the same
phenomenon that makes wet fabric look darker). Softeners can be responsible for poorer crockfastness
by dissolving surface dye. Some may migrate onto adjacent light colored yarns causing them to be
stained.

SOFTENER CLASSIFICATIONS
Softeners are divided into three major chemical categories describing the ionic nature of the
molecule, namely Anionic, Cationic and Nonionic. Nearly all
surfactants are softeners; however, not all softeners are surfactants. Surfactants are two-ended
molecule, one end being lyophilic and the other hydrophilic. The lyophile is usually a long hydrocarbon
chain, the essence of most lubricants. The ionic portion is responsible for water solubility, (a necessary
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feature for applying the softeners) and as will be discussed later, in how the molecule aligns itself at the
fiber surface. This section will be devoted to describing the chemical structures of important softeners,
some of their properties and their fabric uses. It is well to remember that the same chemical structure
may describe a surfactant used for other purposes such a s detergents, wetting agents, emulsifying agents
etc.
A. Anionic Softeners
Anionic softeners and/or surfactant molecules have a negative charge on the molecule which
come from either a carboxylate group (-COO-), a sulfate group (-OSO3 -) or a phosphate group (-PO4
-). Sulfates and sulfonates make up the bulk of the anionic softeners. Some phosphates, and to a lesser
extent the carboxylates, are used as softeners.

1. Sulfates
Sulfate esters are made by the reaction of sulfuric acid with hydroxyl groups or the addititon of
H2SO4 across a -C=C- group. Starting materials for making anionic softeners are fatty alcohols,
unsaturated fatty acids or their corresponding esters and triglycerides containing unsaturated fatty acid
acids. Oils rich in triolein are excellent bases for making sulfated triglycerides. Castor oil, being rich in
ricinoleic acid which contains both a double bond and a hydroxyl group, is a popular starting material
for making sulfated triglycerides.
a. Fatty Alcohol Sulfates
Fatty alcohol sulfates are made by the reaction of the appropriate hydrophobe with sulfuric acid.
Typical products are sulfated fatty alcohols and sulfated ethoxylated fatty alcohols.

b. Sulfated Fatty Acid Esters

Addition of sulfuric acid across double bonds also lead to sulfate esters. Sulfated Triglycerides.
Source of fat will determine the degree of sulfation. The higher the degree of unsaturation, the greater
the potential for sulfation. The hydrophilic character of the fat will depend on the number of sulfate
attached to the triglyceride. Products ranging from slightly water soluble to highly soluble are made. The
best softeners are the ones containing the fewest sulfate groups because the molecule becomes more
ionic and a poorer lubricant as the number of sulfate groups increase. The lightly sulfonated oils are
sometimes called self-emulsifying because they form turbid water solutions. They are easily removed
from fiber or fabric without the need of an auxiliary surfactant.

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 Turkey Red Oil is sulfated castor oil. Ricinoleic acid, the major acid in castor oil has both a
hydroxyl group a t the C12 position and a C=C a t the C9 position. Both of these groups are converted t
o sulfate ester linkages so castor oil can have a degree of substitution up to 6.
Sulfated Fatty Acid Esters. Methyl, propyl, butyl and stearyl esters of oleic and linoleic acids are the
usual starting materials. The degree of sulfation is controlled by the unsaturated fatty acid. Oleic acid
yield monosulfonated esters while linoleic acid can add up to two moles.

2. Sulfonated Fatty Amides and Esters

Sulfonates differ from sulfates. A sulfonate (-CH2-SO3H) has the sulfur atom attached directly
to the carbon atom whereas the sulfate (-CH2-O-SO3H) is linked to the carbon through an oxygen. This
linkage difference changes the stability of the molecule to hydrolysis. Sulfates readily hydrolyze back to
the starting alcohol and sulfuric acid whereas sulfonates are much more resistant to hydrolysis.

a. Sulfoethyl Fatty Esters (IGEPON A)

This line of surfactants is made by reacting fatty acids with sodium isethionate to yield a sulfo-
ethyl ester of the acid. Isethionic acid is made by reacting ethylene oxide with sodium bisulfite, both
inexpensive chemicals.

b. Sulfoethyl Fatty Amides (IGEPON )

Sulfoethyl amides are made by reacting taurine with fatty acid chlorides. Acid chlorides react
more easily than the free acid. Taurine is made from isethionic acid.

Nonionic Softeners
Nonionic softeners can be divided into three subcategories, ethylene oxide derivatives, silicones,
and hydrocarbon waxes based on paraffin or polyethylene. The ethylene oxide based softeners, in many
instances, are surfactants, and can be tailored to give a multitude of products. Hydrophobes such as fatty
alcohols, fatty amines and fatty acids are ethoxylated to give a wide range of products. Silicones too can
be tailored t o give several different types of products. Polyethylene wax
emulsions, either as high density or a s low density polymers, are commercially available. Different
types of emulsifiers can be used when making the emulsion so
that products can be tailored to meet specific needs. This section will discuss some of the more
important nonionic surfactants.

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1. Polyethylene Emulsions
Polyethylene emulsions dry down to form hard, waxy films. When the emulsion is applied to
fibers, a waxy coating deposits on the surface reducing its coefficient of friction. These coatings offer
good protection against needle cutting and thread breakage and improve abrasion resistance and tearing
strength.

a. Composition of Polyethylene Emulsions

To be emulsifiable, the polyethylene polymer is first oxidized by passing air through the melt.
Oxidation converts some polymer end groups to -COOH and the quantity of carboxyl groups is
controlled. Both low and high density polyethylene are processed this way. A number of grades of
polyethylene polymers are available .differing in melting point, melt viscosity, molecular weight and
carboxyl content. Dispersions with anionic, nonionic and cationic character are made by selecting
appropriate auxiliary emulsifier. Selecting a n emulsion with the proper ionic character is important
otherwise the finishing bath will become unstable and break out. Stable water emulsions with solids up
to 20% are commercially available. The alkali salt of the polymer's carboxyl group is a n important
factor in the stability of the dispersions.

Typical Composition
2. Ethoxylated Nonionic Softeners
Many polyethylene glycolated hydrophobes are oily or waxy in nature and function a s non-ionic
fabric softeners and fiber lubricants. They are important components of fiber spin finishes because of
their dual ability to lubricate and function a s as antistats. Additionally, they are easily removed in
downstream processing. There are two main route for making this family of products, direct thoxylation
of the hydrophobe, or the reaction of fatty acids with polyethylene glycols. The former method gives
mainly monofatty derivatives whereas the second method gives a mixture of mono and difatty
derivatives.

3. Silicone Chemistry
In order to appreciate the role of silicones a s fabric softeners, it is necessary for the reader to
understand the chemistry leading to this class of polymeric materials. Silicones are Polysiloxane
Polymers and fall under the class of materials known as organometallics. The element silicon is
considered a metal and is found in abundance in nature as silica, SiO2. Silicon resembles carbon in t h a
t it is tetravalent and forms covalent bond with other elements. Simple tetravalent compounds are called
126
silanes. Silicon forms a stable covalent bond with carbon leading to a class of materials known as
organosilanes. For example methyl chloride reacts with silicon to form a mixture of silanes as shown in
the box below. The mixture includes silanes containing methyl, chloro and hydrogen groups in varying
proportions. Chlorosilanes rapidly react with water to form silanols which further condense to form
siloxane linkages. Dimethyldichlorosilane will form linear polysiloxanes which are water clear oils with
excellent lubricating properties. The viscosity of the oil will vary with the molecular weight. Utilizing
appropriate monomers and reactive groups, polysiloxanes, better known as silicones, are also found a s
three dimensional resins and high molecular weight elastomers.

a. Advantages
Silicones are water clear oils that are stable to heat and light and do not discolor fabric. They
produce a slick silky hand and are preferred for white goods. They improve tear and abrasion resistance
and are excellent for improving sewing properties of fabrics. Amino functional silicones improve DP
performance of cotton goods. Epoxy functional are more durable.
b. Disadvantages
The silicones are water repellent which make them unsuitable as towel softeners. Silicones are
expensive compared with fatty softeners. Amino functional silicone discolor with heat and aging. They
may interfere with redying when salvaging off quality goods.

5.3WEIGHT REDUCTION OF PET (SILK LIKE PET)

To produce silk like polyester by means of weight – reduction process.

Garments of natural silk are greatly valued for their softness drape, suppleness, warm and sensuous
feeling and comfort properties.

If polyester fabric is constructed from very fine denier yarn, the feel of the fabric is close to
natural silk. However, it is uneconomical to weave or knit fabrics from very fine denier yarn. Therefore,
a finish is given to PET fabrics to make them silk like, This finishing treatment is based on controlled
hydrolysis of polyester with sodium hydroxide. It gives some loss of weight of the fabric which reduces
the denier of the fiber and thus gives a thin fabric

The hydrolysis of polyester with caustic soda is an old technology .ICI disclosed a treatment for
polyester fabrics made from flat yarn to get a soft hand and low synthetic feel.
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 Dupont developed a process(calendar –heatset-caustic soda hydrolusis) to get fabric with high
luster and better feel. The treatment was of occasional interest during the 1960s and early 1970s .During
all these years, weight loss in hydrolysis was kept low at about 2-5%.Since 1977 japanese PET
manufacturers have extensively used the controlled hydrolusis technique to get silk like polyester.

MECHANISM OF WEIGHT REDUCTION OR SAPONIFICATION REACTION

Hydroxyl ions in a solution of sodium hydroxide attack the carbonyl group in the polymer,
Which results in the formation of disodium terephthalate and ethylene glycol ,Disodium terephthalate is
soluble in alkaline solutions up to 13-14%.Free terephthalic acid is formed below pH 8 which is
insoluble in water and may deposit on the surface of the fabric. It is therefore essential to wash out all
disodium terephthalic with alkaline water before neutralizing the fabric. The loss in weight of PET
depends on the alkali concentration, temperature, and time of treatment. The relation between time of
treatment weight loss and thickness of the fabric

RECIPE:

NaoH - 5%
Temperature – 80 -90 ° C
Time - 30Minutes
M: L: R - 1:30

PROCEDURE:

 The given PET fabric is weighed accurately. The bath is set with 5%NaoH solution using the
MLR of 1:30 at room temperature.
 The fabric to be finished is entered into the bath at room temperature.
 The temperature of the bath is gradually raised to 80 -90 ° C
 Then the material is treated in the bath at 80-90 ° C for 30 minutes
 The treated fabric is given for washing, soaping and neutralizing.
 Then the fabric is dried.

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5.4 MICROENCAPSULATION
Microencapsulation is a growing field that is finding application in many technological
disciplines. The encapsulation of materials has evolved from examples in nature, where in numerous
examples exist, ranging from micro scale to nanoscale. Nature envelops materials to protect them from
environmental influences; the simplest example of macroscopic scale is a bird’s egg or seed, while on
microscopic scale the example is that of a cell along with its contents. The development
microencapsulation began with the preparations of capsules containing dyes, perfumes, medicine etc.
Microencapsulation is process by which tiny parcels of a gas, liquid, or solid active
ingredient are packaged within a second material for the purpose of shielding the active ingredient from
the surrounding
environment. These capsules, which range in size from one micron to seven millimeters, release their
contents at a later time by means appropriate to the applications.

Figure 3: Microcapsules

There are many advantages of microencapsulation technique. Liquid can be handled as solids, odor or
taste can be effectively masked, core substances can be protected from the deleterious effect.
MECHANISM OF CORE PARTICAL RELEASE:

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 Figure 4: Coextrusion Process

Figure 5: Spray Drying

There are four typical mechanisms by which core material is released from a microcapsules.
Less common release mechanism includes ablation ( slow erosion of a shell) and biodegradation. The
different mechanisms are as follows;

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 1. Mechanical rupture of capsule wall.
2. Dissolution of the wall.
3. Melting of the wall.
4. Diffusion through the wall.

BENEFITS OF MICROENCAPSULATION :
 Protection of unstable sensitive materials from their environment prior to use.
 Better processability ( improving solubility, dispersiility)
 Self life enhancement by preventing degradative reactions. (oxidation, dehydration)
 Controlled sustained or timed release.
 Safe and convenient handling of toxic materials.
 Masking of odour and taste.
 Enzyme and micro-organism immobilitation.
 Controlled and targeted drug delivery.
 Handling liquids as solids.

Table 3: Microencapsulation process with their relative particle size ranges

Microencapsulation process Particle size (micrometer)

Extrusion 250-2500
Spray-drying 5-5000
Fluid bed coating 20-1500
Rotating disk 5-1500
Coacervation 2-1200
Solvent evaporation 0.5-1000
Phase separation 0.5-1000
In-situ polymerization 0.5-1100
Interfacial polymerization 0.5-1000
Miniemulsion 0.1-0.5
Sil-gel encapsulation 2-20
Layer by layer assembly 0.02-20

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 Figure 6: Morphology of microcapsules.

5.5 NANO FINISH

INTRODUCTION
The term Nano in Nano technology comes from a Greek word "Nanos" which means 'dwarf'. The
dictionary meaning of dwarf is abnormally small. One nanometer is one billionth of a meter or 10-9
meters. One Nano meters is about 100000 times smaller than the diameter of the human hair.
Unique properties of Nano materials have attracted not only scientist and research workers but
also the businessmen, especially the textile, because of their high economical potential.

NANO TECHNOLOGY
In 1974, Prof.Nario Taniguchi states that "Nano tech mainly consists of the processing of
Separation, consolidation and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule. Nano tech is the
design characterization production and application structures, devices and system by controlling shape
& size at the nano scale. This technology that can work at the Molecular level, atom by atom to create
large structures with improved molecular organization. The term is directly related to its functional
parameters. In the nanotechnology, the material related to the technology is smallest in dimension. Here
at least one of dimensions of the materials is in order of 1 to 100 nm. Here it should be represented that a
nanometer (nm) is billionth of one meter i.e. 1nm=10-9 m. The human hair is about 100 times of it or a
hydrogen atom is 10 times less of it. The technological process related to the nano scaled materials can
be referred as the nanotechnology. The research of nanotechnology has been continuing for decades and
it is considered as one of the promising technology of 21st century

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Nanotech research efforts in textile have focused on 2 main areas

1. Upgrading existing functions and performance of textile materials

2. Developing intelligent textiles with completely new characteristics and functions

SYNTHESIS OF NANOPHASE MATERIALS

There are 2 ways in synthesis of Nano phase materials they are:
1. Top down approach
2. Bottom up approach
1. Top down approach involving breaking down the bulk materials to nano sizes (Eg. Mechanical
alloying)
2. Bottom up approach the nano particles also made by building atom by atom
(Eg. Inert gas condensation)
One of the trends in synthesis process is to pursure nano scale emulsification through which
finishes can be applied to textile materials in more through, even and precise manner. Finishes can be
emulsified into nano-micielles made into nano sols (or) wrapped in nano capsules, that can be adhere to
textile substrates more evenly.

Example of some magic nano-particles

There are numerous numbers of nano-particles. Here just some nano-particles are presented.
Clay nano particles.
ZnO nano-particles.
TiO2 nano-particles.
MgO nano-particles.
Silver nano-particles.
Fluorocarbon nano-particles.
Antimony pent oxide nano-particles.
Tourmaline nano-particles.

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APPLICATION AREA OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILE FINISHING
The recent applications of nanotechnology in textile finishing are high performance sky wax,
breathable water proof sky jacket, wrinkle resistant, stain repellent garments, LED digital camera etc.
The functional water repellent, protection UV, absorption property, color fastness, abrasion safety, fire
ret ardency, functional hygiene, anti-microbial functional protection self-cleaning.
 Nano whiskers that make the fabric stained and water resistant. It also makes the fabric
breathable rather than resin finishes.
 The more-over whiskers give water and oil repellency, superior durability, breathable fabric,
remains soft and natural wrinkle resistance.
 The nano net completely covers the core fibers and inject linen property in synthetic fibers I,e the
absorbency of linen in polyester fibers. It alters the synthetic fibers to give a feel of cotton and
linen that absorbs the body moisture and gives cooling effect.
 “Wrap nano sheet” wraps the fibers completely to cover it and the property. It makes fabric
strong and durable. It improves the color fastness, crease retention and static resistance.
 Clay nano-particles are composed of various hydrous allumino-silicates that posses various
properties like chemical, heat, electrical resistance that improve flame ret ardency and anti
corrosiveness of the fabric.
 ZnO nano particles can impart UV shielding in fabrics that can also reduces static electricity of
nylon fabric.
 TiO2 and MgO have photo catalytic activity. These particles are able to break the toxic, harmful
chemicals and biological agents. Hence impart self-sterilizing functions to the fibers.
 Silver nano-particles posses anti microbial and anti mould property. The particles are used to
impart anti odor and ultra fresh finishes to the undergarments and socks.

5.5.1 SELF CLEANING FINISH

NANO IS BASICS FOR SELF CLEANING GARMENTS:
Nanotechnology is regarded as a key technology, which will not only influence technological
development in the near future, but will also have economic, social and ecological implications.
Nanotechnology deals with the science and technology at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers (1
Billion Nanometers = 1 Meter), although 100 nanometers presently is the practically attainable
dimension for textile products and applications. Conventional methods used to impart different
properties to fabrics often do not lead to permanent effects, and will lose their functions after

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Laundering or wearing. Nanotechnology can provide high durability for fabrics, because nano-particles
have a large surface area-to-volume ratio and high surface energy.

SELF-CLEANING MECHANISM
Nanocare fabrics are created by modifying the cylindrical structure of the cotton fibres making
the fabric. At the nanoscale, cotton fibres like tree trunks. Using nanotechniques, these tree trunks are
covered in a fuzz of minute whiskers which creates a cushion of air around the fibre. When water hits
the fabric, it beads on the points of the whiskers, the beads compress the air in the cavities between the
whiskers creating extra buoyancy. In technical terms, the fabric has been rendered super-non wettable or
super-hydrophobic.

The whiskers also create fewer points of contact for dirt. When water is applied to soiled fabric,
the droplet on an inclined super hydrophobic surface does not slide off; it rolls off. When the droplet
rolls over a contamination, the particle is removed from the surface if the force of absorption of the
particle is higher than the static friction force between the particle and the surface. Usually the force
needed to remove a particle is very low due to the minimized contact area between the particle and the
surface. As a result, the droplet cleans the leaf by rolling off the surface

Diagram showing a droplet cleaning a super hydrophobic surface by rolling off

Due to their high surface tension water droplets tend to minimize their surface trying to achieve a
spherical shape. On contact with a surface, adhesion forces result in wetting of the surface: either
complete or incomplete wetting may occur depending on the structure of the surface and the fluid

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tension of the droplet. The cause of self-cleaning properties is the hydrophobic water-4 repellent double
structure of the surface. This enables the contact area and the adhesion force between surface and
droplet to be significantly reduced resulting in a self-cleaning process.

MANUFACTURING METHOD
The manufacturing of self-cleaning textiles using nanotechnology:-
• Using hydrophobic coatings—the lotus-effect
• Using hydrophilic photo catalytic coatings
• Using silver nano particles
• Using easy to clean finishing

USING SILVER NANO PARTICLES

A highly water-repellant coating made of silver nanoparticles that can be used to produce suits
and other clothing items that offer superior resistance to dirt as well as water and require much less
cleaning than conventional fabrics. Nano-Tex improves the water-repellent property of fabrics by
creating nanowhiskers, which are made of hydrocarbons and have about 1/1000 of the size of a typical
cotton fiber. They are added to the fabric to create a peach fuzz effect without lowering the strength of
cotton.

While treated textile surface do not adheres the dust particles hence when water particles rolls over it
dust get washed off.

EASY TO CLEAN FINISHES

ETC-Easy to clean surfaces was water repellent accordingly are often confused with other self-
cleaning functions such as LOTUS EFFECT. Unlike the latter, easy- to- clean surfaces are smooth rather
than rough. Surfaces have a lower force of surface attraction due to a decrease in their surface energy,
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resulting in reduced surface adhesion. This causes water to be repelled, forming water droplets and
running off. Easy-to-clean surfaces are therefore hydrophobic i.e. water-repellent and often also oleo
phobic i.e. oil repellent, making them suitable for use in bathroom.
MECHANISM

The primary difference here is that easy to clean surface coatings do not require uv light to
function and their hydrophobic surface properties-as opposed to hydrophilic-cause water to run of in
droplets rather than forming a thin film of water. Water that runs off inclined ETC surfaces forms
droplets, washing away surface grime in the process.
ADVANTAGES:
 Generally speaking easy to clean surfaces are less susceptible to dirt accumulation.
 The benefit: stress free and easy cleaning, saves time and cost
LIMITATIONS:
 The disadvantage is that droplets dry individually, leaving behind dirt residues although these are
easy to remove.
 When only a small amount of water is involved, droplets of run off water can form runaways.
 It is therefore necessary to consider where and how the easy-to-clean function should best be
employed.
 As a rule, suitable surfaces should be inclined and exposed to sufficient quantities of water.
Abrasive detergents and brute force application by cleaning personnel-in the worst case both
together and not uncommon and with time will damage

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OTHER FUNCTIONAL FINISHES
Easy care hydrophobic nano finish:

The hydrophobic nature of any surface can be gained through two steps- Creation rough surface.
Modification of the surface by the substance having low surface energy.
Fluorocarbon is hugely used for the finish. This contains perfluoroalkyl residue in which all the
hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine compounds. The chemical can reduce surface tension because
of having very high thermal stability & low reactivity. The mentionable surface tension of the
fluorocarbon finishes depends on its chain length. The minimum chain length can be represented as n=9.

Anti microbial finish

It is an old concept that “silver” molecules have a power to resist bacteria and microorganism.
Hence the food, water, any other substance have great weakness to bacteria or microorganism were kept
in the utensils of silver metal. This antibacterial property of silver particles has been proved
scientifically. This finishing procedure is carried out by the encapsulation of the silver compounds i.e.
the nano particles of silver are encapsulated in the fiber reactive polymer.

2AgC₆H₈O₆--------⇢2AgO + C₆H₆O₆ +2H⁺

Prof. Yang prepared a suitable way for that. He prepared a capsule having two parts, one is inner
core and other is outer layer. Two parts have two functions. He prepared it by some steps.
Encapsulation of an emulsified solution of perfume with melanin pre-condensate.
The silver nano particles are dispersed in water soluble styrene maleic anhydride polymer solution. Here
a solution will be prepared.
The micro capsules, prepared at the step “a” are treated with the solution of “b”. Hence the
microcapsule having functions both of silver and melanin. Then the yarn or fabrics are treated with the
microcapsules.

Photo catalytic self cleaning

The combination of powerful oxidizing agents and UV lights in some cases near UV light has a
property of removing of xenobitics and organic pollutants from the textile products. The TiO₂ is a
recognized catalytic compound. it shows it`s catalytic property by the absorption of a photon and
jumped to the conduction band from the valance band. That is able to remove the organic pollutants and
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xenobiotics from the textile materials. Hence by treating the fabric or yarn by the particles, the fabric or
yarn can be brought into photo catalytic self cleaning property. There is an absorbing capacity of UV
rays in TiO₂ particles so the fabric of yarn also can be protected from UV rays for 20 washes.

Anti pollen finishing

The polymers having anti static and electro conductive composition are used for the finishing
e.g. Fluor alkyl acryl ate polymers. The nano particles of 30 nm(slightly more or less) are applied on the
surface of the yarn hence the surface becomes smooth and anti static that does not allow the pollen or
dust to come close.

Flame retardant finishing

The antimony pent oxide nano particles along with Halogenated flame-retardants are used for
the flame retardant finishing. The antimony has a characteristic of flame retardency. Hence the presence
of antimony particles along with halogenated flame retardant in the fabric increases a flame retardant
property of the fabric.

Odor fights finishing

Tourmaline a natural substance is used for the odor fighting finishing. The tourmaline comes
contact with oxygen, carbon dioxide and water molecules that allows an electrolytic dissociation that
creates negative ions. The negative ions create a magnetic field that resists the bacteria so the fabric
stays odor free. Also there we see another occurrence of infra red consumption that destroys bacteria to
make the fabric odor free.

UV protection finishing
Clay nano particles (e.g. clay nano particles of montmoriblonite) or nano flakes are used for the
purpose. These types of substances contain hydrogen aluminosilicates, having difference in the chemical
composition & crystal structures. The clay nano particles have a property of locking UV light. It also has
electrical, chemical & heat resistance. Hence the UV rays can be removed by the fabric having a finish
of clay nano particles.

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Water & Beverage repellent finishing
By the nano finishing, a coated layer is produced on the fabric surface. Which does not allow the
water or beverage to be entered when a fabric is finished with the substances having the sizes of 100 nm
the fabric becomes compressed that makes the cloth stain & dirt resistant.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF CLEANING GARMENTS:

1. Another plus is that they can be permanently attached to the garment's fibers without altering its
texture or feel.
2. The self-cleaning clothes can also help conserve a considerable amount of water and energy that is
normally utilized during the cleaning process.
3. Self-cleaning property will become a standard feature of future textiles and other commonly used
materials to maintain hygiene and prevent the spread of pathogenic infection.
4. The lotus leaf nanostructure and nano titanium dioxide coating built on fabric can defend and
decompose stains, dirt, odours, bacteria, harmful gases, and highly water and oil repellent.
5. Self-cleaning garment can effectively reduce the laundering process so as to protect the environment.
6. The self-cleaning garment also possesses excellent UV protection property. The treatment has
excellent durability towards washing and normal usage without sacrifices the soft hand and breathability
of textile fabrics.
7. A polymer film mixed with silver nanoparticles -- can be permanently integrated into any common
fabric, including silk, polyester and cotton.
8. In the long run, it can save time and money by reducing expensive dry cleaning bills. It is also
environmentally friendly
9. Saving time and laundering cost.
10. This technology embraces environmental friendly properties.
11. The crease resistant feature keeps clothing neat.
12. Garments stay bright, fresh looking and are more durable than ordinary materials.

The economic significance of the self cleaning textiles can be outlined as follows:
1. Ease of maintenance and environmental protection because of reduced cleaning efforts
2. Time, material, energy reduction and consequently cost-efficiency during production
3. Makes textiles longer-lasting
4. People need not to suffer from heavy laundry bills.
5. Improved ageing behavior by extended surface purity effect.
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AREAS OF APPLICATION:
• Medical textiles e.g. Hospital garments
• Sport tech e.g. Athletic wear
• Defense textile e.g. Military uniforms
• Smart textiles
• Upholstery
• under garments

PROBLEMS WITH SELF-CLEANING FABRIC:

The main reasons that self-cleaning fabrics require a lot of time to break down stains is because
Titanium dioxide is very inefficient at using energy from sunlight. Excitation of electrons to the
conduction band is only the beginning of the cleaning process. These electrons must then react with
oxygen atoms, which then react with the dirt particles. All of these reactions are limited by access to and
the amount of freed electrons in the titanium dioxide. So for a large stain, a lot of light energy is needed
before the fabric can fully break it down. And also batch processing of a hydrophobic material is a
costly and time consuming technique.

RECOMENDATION
Super hydrophobic materials, which repel water, are typically good at removing dirt particles but
don't deal with oils well. Materials that repel oil might not work with certain types of oil. The titanium-
dioxide-coated materials, on the other hand, will not work unless they are exposed to sunlight for hours.
Prices of clothing and other products treated with the new coating will initially be a bit more expensive
than other water-repellant garments; researches are currently working on ways to make the coating
cheaper. Further research would be required to test ways of applying titanium dioxide nanofilms to other
textiles.

5.6 PLASMA TREATMENT

INTRODUCTION
Plasma is the fourth state of matter, after solid, liquid and water, and contains ionized gas
comprising of ions,electrons,atoms and molecules. Plasma was identified by Sir Williams Crookes in
1897 and applied by Irving Langmuir in 1929.
A gas requires 1-30 eV per particle to change its state to Plasma which is much higher than
that required for solid-liquid or liquid-gaseous transitions. Reactive gases, inert gases, water vapour and
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condition of these are used on all types of textile materials depending upon the applications. Plasma
surface treatment by either active or passive plasma exposure. Active plasma a form in which an
electrically conducting work piece is made of a cathode of DC abnormal glow discharge, thus ensuring
complete coverage of surface by plasma.

PRINCIPLE OF PLASMA TREATMENT:

The plasma atmosphere consists of free electrons, radicals, ions, UV-radiations and lot
of different excited particles in dependence of used gas. Different reactive species in the plasma
chamber interact with substrate surface.
 The substrate can be treated directly in the plasma zone.
 The substrate can be positioned outside the plasma this process is called remote process.
 The substrate can be activated in the plasma followed by subsequent grafting.
 The substrate can be treated with a polymer solution or gas which will be fixed or polymerized
by a subsequent plasma treatment.
TABLE 1: EFFECT OF PLASMA FINISHING ON VARIOUS FABRICS

Fibre Process Process conditions Effect Results

Cotton Hydrophilicity Low pressure 0.6-8 weight loss, increase in Strong etching
and wettability mbr c=o,contents
Linen Wicking (RF Pressure 15 Pa with Weight loss, etching rate No significant
Plasma) power 100,200 W decreases under all conditions effects on
prolonged
exposure but
causes
degradation
Flax Topographical Frequency Etching of surface and O2 plasma
study (RF 13.56mHZ,pressure revelation of fibrilliar shows faster
plasma) 15 Pa & 200W structure. rate, bigger
micro-process
shrinking
Wool Shrink Low temperature at Felting decreases, becomes Microproces
resistance (Glow 10 Pa pressure shrink and cleft

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 Discharge) resistance,alkaline,solubilition created.
Increases and dyes faster Subsequent
enzyme
treatement
enhances
handle and
dyebilities
Nylon Water Power 100W and 4 Absorption of F atoms on Air recents and
repellency (RF Pa surface. glossing
Plasma) improves.

IONIZATION OF GASES:

The molecules in the air at atmospheric pressure and room temperatures collide with each other
with a frequency of about 109 collisions per second. When molecules collide with sufficient energy,
electrons and atoms are bombarded from molecules and gets ionized.i.e.splitting into negatively charged
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electrons and positively charged ions. The energy required for removing a single electron from a
molecule or atom is called ionization potential.
Gas is normally an electrical insulator, but when a sufficiently high voltage is applied it will
breakdown and conduct electricity. The voltage at which this happens is called breakdown or ionization
potential and it varies with the type of gas, pressure, flow rate, the gap between electrodes produced by
ionizing a gas mixture by applying an electromagnetic field. This gas is called as Discharge or Plasma.

How does plasma treatment affects the textile substrate:

The cleaning effect is mostly combined with changes in the wettability and the surface texture.
This leads for example to an increase of quality printing, painting, dye-uptake, adhesion and so on.
Increase of micro roughness: The anti-pilling finishing finishing of wool.
Generation of radicals: The presence of free radicals induces secondary reaction in cross-linking.
Plasma polymrision: It enables the deposition of solid polymeric materials with desired properties onto
substrate.

Potential of plasma technology in textile processes:

A plasma treatment can replace all existing wet processing step. Examples are treatement for
improved wetting and adhesion properties, such as dyeing coating and making composite materials.
Plasma treatement can also helps in the saving in the water, material and energy.
Reduction in amount of chemicals needed in wet treatment following the plasma treatement better
exhaustion of chemicals from the dye bath is obtained.
Shortening of wet process time this compensates for extra time required for plasma treatement.
Reduction of wet processing temperatures saving heating energy. This adds to the efficient use of energy
during plasma treatement.
Extra advantage can be that the finished textile shows better performance and improved fastness
properties i.e. has an extra added value.

ADVANTAGES OF THE PLASMA TREATEMENT:

 Applicable to all substrates suitable for vaccum processes i.e. almost free choice of substrate
materials.
 Optimization of surface properties of materials without alteration of bulk properties.

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  On polymers which are unable or very difficult to modify with wet chemicals, the surface
properties can also easily be changed.
 The consumption of chemicals is very low due to physical process.
 The process is performed in a dry, closed system, and excels in high reliability and safety.

TABLE 2: EFFECT OF GAS PLASMA

Gas plasma Effects

Argon Increased surface roughness
Oxygen Improves wettability
Fluorocarbons Improves water repellency
Ammonia, carbon-dioxide Modifies surface chemical groups

Figure no.2 :Representation of plasma state

PLASMA TREATMENT FOR WOOL:

Air or oxygen plasma treatment at low or atmospheric pressure on wool fabrics improves
wettability and strengths and imparts anti-felting and shrink-proofing properties. Air and nitrogen
plasmas produce significant exhaustions, enhanced depth of shade have been observed with acid dye.
Low temperature air plasma treatement of wool increases wettability, dyebility, fibre
cohesion and shrink resistance. Subsequent treatment with bopolymer ‘chitosan’ enhances the shrink
resistance properties.
Plasma treatement of wool fabrics followed by silicon treatement improves dimensional
stability wrinkle resistance and surface smoothness. Wool fabrics treated with low temperature oxygen
plasma alters low stress mechanical properties and reduces air permeability.
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PLASMA TREATEMENT OF SILK:
Plasma treatement of synthetic fiber is mainly aimed to increase hydrophilicity, dyebility,
anti-static properties and printability. Polyester treated with radiofrequency air plasma reduces surface
resistance and subsequent plasma initiated grafting of acrylamide and acrylonitrile increases moisture
content up to 3%.
Plasma treatement of polypropylene, a widely used material in technical textile. With air,
oxygen, nitrogen and ammonia gases at low pressure or atmospheric pressure largely increases its
wettability, antistatic and adhesive properties. A similar effect is produced on hydrophobic fibers such as
polyethylene, polyamide, PET and PTFE.
Surface modification with oxygen plasma on Nylon 6 improves electrical conductivity and
adhesion properties. Plasma treatement of high performance fibers such as polyaramide (Nomex) are
prone to hydrolysis hydrogen plasma treated applied diffusion barrier on its surface which reduces the
tendency to hydrolysis.non woven surgical gowns treated with fluorescents plasma show an improved
blood and water repellency also show a zone of inhibition for aero-microorganisms.

5.7 BIO FINISHING

ENZYMES

● Enzymes are "active" proteins that can increase (catalyze) the rate of biochemical reactions.

● Enzymes are complex protein ferments which are natural chemicals made and used by living
organisms but are themselves "non-living".

● Industrial enzymes are safe and natural. Enzymes are even used to make foods such as fruit, bread and
beer.

● Enzymes are the naturally occuring high molecular weight proteins capable of catalysing chemical
reactions of biological processes and hence are known as “bio-catalysts”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES:

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 ▪ A characteristics feature of the enzyme is that it is not used by it self during the process and can
be recovered at the end of the reaction.
▪ Enzymes are advantageous because of their low activation energy requirement, since the
reaction conditions are close to ambient.
▪ Sharp control over process conditions is essential because the enzymes are very sensitive to pH
and temperature variation.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME REACTION:

Enzyme catalysis operates first of all to form an enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme is
adsorbed onto a substrate surface in lock and key fashion. Bio-reaction takes place in the enzyme-
substrate complex through reduction of the activation energy to a multiple of the reaction speed. Finally,
the complex disintegrates with the release of the reaction products and the original enzymes are once
again available. The process continues until the enzyme is poisoned by a chemical or inactivated by
extremes of temperature, pH or by other negative conditions in the processing environment

5.7.1 BIO POLISHING:-

Removal of surface hair called fuzz from fabric which otherwise gives unpleasant appearance
 Improvement in soft handle of fabric
 Increased drapability and compressibility and rigidity

Bulk scale polishing was carried out in a Jigger by applying 1 unit of enzyme per gm of fabric.
 The fabric (wt, 50kg length 200m) was thoroughly desized by washing with warm water (80°C)
containing a non-ionic surfactant and then treated with enzyme at 50°C for about 2 hrs, keeping
the fiber-to-liquor ratio at 1:4 the pH of liquor was adjusted to 5 using acetic acid.
 Bio polishing of fabric with cellulose enzyme reduces hairiness, increases drapability and
imparts a soft handle and an elegant look to the fabric.
 The improvements are stable and durable as the fabric characteristics are permanently altered by
the action of enzymes.

Bio-Polishing - A New Way of Garment Finishing

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 The use of enzymes for industrial applications is widespread. Enzymes have been used for a long
time in textile desizing. However, the current best known use of enzymes in the textile industry probably
is in detergents. Enzyme technology has also been established in the denim industry to obtain the
"stonewashed" look. A new treatment known as "Bio-Polishing" for finishing garments, introduced by a
Danish company, Novo Nordisk, may be the new wave in the textile/apparel industry.

Bio-Polishing can be applied to woven or knitted fabrics containing natural cellulosic fibers,
such as cotton or linen, to give a permanently enhanced and glossier appearance. It is claimed that the
fabrics are softer to touch and smoother to handle, have superior color brightness, and retain their
"polished" appearance after repeated washings and launderings. Currently a significant amount of
research is being done on the use of different enzymes to finish other natural fibers such as wool.

Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins that are capable of catalyzing specific chemical
reactions. Because they only catalyze the reactions and are not consumed, only a small quantity is
needed. Cellulase enzymes are proteins that are capable of hydrolyzing (degrading) cellulose. Two kinds
of cellulase are currently available: "acid cellulases" which exhibit the most activity in acid pH range of
4.5 to 5.5 and "neutral cellulases" that are active in the 5.5 to 8.0 pH range. Both enzymes are active
within an optimal temperature range of about 45oC to 60oC. After the hydrolysis of cellulosic fibers to
the desired extent, the enzyme can be deactivated by changing the temperature or pH level. Because the
enzymes are natural proteins, readily biodegradable, they are a favorable alternative to many finishing
chemicals and resins that are currently used.

The bio-polishing process targets the removal of the small fiber ends protruding from the yarn
surface and thereby reduces the hairiness or fuzz of the fabrics. The hydrolysis action of the enzyme
weakens the protruding fibers to the extent that a small physical abrasion force is sufficient to break and
remove them.

Bio-polishing can be accomplished at any time during wet processing but is most convenient
performed after bleaching. It can be done in both continuous or batch processes. However, continuous
processes require some incubation time for enzymatic degradation to take place. Removing the fuzz
makes the color brighter, the fabric texture more obvious, and reduces pilling. Unfortunately, the
treatment also reduces the fabric strength. Smoother yarns also increase the fabric softness, appearance
and feel. Since it is an additional process, the bio-polished garments may cost slightly more. Next time
you buy apparel, look for the label "Bio-Polished."
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5.7.2 BIO-SINGEING

This mode has been specially developed to achieve a cleaner pile on terry towels. A treatement
with “ultrazyme LF conc”- a powerful composition gives a clear look to the pile, improved absorbency
and softness.Fabrics containing regenerated cellulosic fiber often show fuzzy surface due to chafing
during wet processing. A smooth and clear finish can be achieved by bio-singeing.

5.7.3 BIO-STONING
Bio-stoning has been widely adopted as the standard method of achieving 'stone-washed' denim.
Enzymes are used to fade the denim rather than the abrasive action of pumice stones. Substantial savings
result from reduced water usage and less damage to the fabric.

5.7.4 BIO-SOFTENING

Cotton and cotton blend fabrics contain small cellulosic microfibrils. Cellulase enzymes are used
to remove this fuzz/pills, imparting softness/smoothness to the fabric, imparting gloss/lustre to the
fabric. Cellulase enzymes are usually classified by the ph range in which they are most effective. Acid-
stable,neutral stable and alkaline stable are the three categories.cellulase enzymes consist of a complex
mixture of endo-glucanases, exo-glucanases and ß-glucosidases. The endo-glucanase hydrolyses long
polymers into smaller ones, the exo-glucanase splits glucose from the non-reducing end of cellulose and
the ß- glucosidase hydrolyses cellobiose to glucose.cellulase enzymes are capable of degrading cellulose
by performing a specific catalytic action on the 1,4-linkage of two ß-glucose residues of the cellulose
molecules

PROPERTY AT LOW CONC. AT HIGH CONC

Tensile linearity Good Poor

Tensile energy Good Poor
Loss of fibre Minimum Maximum
Tensile resilience Poor Good
Bending rigidy Increases Decreases

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Hysteresis of bending Increases Decreases
moment
Shear stiffness Higher Lower
Compressional energy Lower Higher
Linearity of compression Lower Higher
Compressional resistance Lower Higher

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