Name :P.

Kavya

Class: CSC-B

Roll no:24691A3774

Subject:BEEE

1) .With neat sketch, explain the input and output characteristics of

Common Collector configuration.

Ans….

The Common Collector (CC) configuration, also known as an emitter

follower or voltage follower, is a crucial Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
amplifier topology. It's widely used as a voltage buffer due to its high
input impedance and low output impedance, making it excellent for
impedance matching between different stages of a circuit.

2) Let's break down its input and output characteristics with neat
sketches.
3) Common Collector (CC) Configuration Circuit Diagram
4) For an NPN transistor, the common collector configuration typically
looks like this:
5)
6) Key Points about the Common Collector Configuration:
7) * Input: Applied between the Base (B) and the Collector (C).
8) * Output: Taken between the Emitter (E) and the Collector (C).
9) * Common Terminal: The Collector (C) is common to both input and
output.
10) * Emitter Follower: The output voltage at the emitter tends to
"follow" the input voltage at the base, with a small voltage drop (VBE,
typically around 0.7V for silicon transistors).
11) * Voltage Gain: Close to unity (Av ≈ 1).
12) * Current Gain: High (Ai ≈ β + 1 or γ).
13) * Input Impedance (Zi): Very high.
14) * Output Impedance (Zo): Very low.
15) Input Characteristics of Common Collector Configuration
16) The input characteristics of a BJT in CC configuration show the
relationship between the input current (Base Current, I_B) and the
input voltage (V_{BC} or V_{CB} for NPN), keeping the output voltage
(V_{EC} or V_{CE} for NPN) constant.
17) Setup for Measurement:
18) * Keep the output voltage (V_{EC}) constant at a specific value
(e.g., 3V, 5V, etc.).
19) * Gradually increase the input voltage (V_{BC}) from zero.
20) * Measure the corresponding base current (I_B) for each step.
21) * Repeat the process for different constant values of V_{EC}.
22) Sketch:
23) ^ I_B (mA)
24) |
25) | V_EC = 0V
26) | /
27) | /
28) | /
29) | /
30) | / V_EC = 3V
31) | / /
32) | / /
33) | / /
34) |/ /
35) |/ /
36) +---------------------> V_BC (Volts)
37) 0 0.7V
38)
39) Explanation:
40) * X-axis: Input voltage (V_{BC} for NPN, or V_{CB} for PNP).
Note: Sometimes V_{CB} is plotted for input voltage, but V_{BC} is
more intuitive as input is between Base and Collector.
2) Explain with Circuit diagram and working of common emitter RC
coupled amplifier with its different frequency response
Ans…
The Common Emitter (CE) RC Coupled Amplifier is a fundamental
building block in electronics, widely used for amplifying weak AC
signals. "RC coupled" signifies that resistors (R) and capacitors (C) are
used to connect one amplification stage to the next, allowing the AC
signal to pass while blocking the DC bias. This ensures that the DC
biasing of one stage doesn't interfere with the next, maintaining the
correct operating point for each transistor.
Circuit Diagram of a Single-Stage Common Emitter RC Coupled
Amplifier
Let's look at a typical circuit diagram for a single-stage common
emitter RC coupled amplifier using an NPN transistor:
Components and Their Functions:
* Vcc: DC supply voltage.
* Q (Transistor): The active amplifying device (here, an NPN BJT).
* R1, R2 (Voltage Divider Biasing): These resistors form a potential
divider network to establish the stable DC bias voltage at the base of
the transistor. This ensures the transistor operates in the active region
for proper amplification.
* Re (Emitter Resistor): Provides thermal stability and negative
feedback to stabilize the operating point against variations in
temperature or transistor parameters.
* Ce (Emitter Bypass Capacitor): This capacitor is connected in parallel
with R_e. Its primary function is to bypass the AC signal around R_e.
Without C_e, the AC signal would cause a voltage drop across R_e,
leading to negative feedback that would significantly reduce the
amplifier's gain. By providing a low impedance path for AC signals, C_e
ensures that R_e only affects the DC biasing.
* Rc (Collector Resistor): This is the load resistor in the collector
circuit. When the collector current (I_C) changes due to the amplified
AC signal, a varying voltage drop occurs across R_c. This varying
voltage is the amplified output signal.
* C_{in} (Input Coupling Capacitor): Connects the input AC signal
source to the base of the transistor. It blocks any DC component from
the input source, preventing it from disturbing the transistor's DC bias.
It allows only the AC signal to pass through.
* C_C (Coupling Capacitor): Connects the output of this amplifier stage
to the input of the next stage (or to the load R_L). Like C_{in}, it blocks
the DC voltage present at the collector, preventing it from affecting the
bias of the subsequent stage, while allowing the amplified AC signal to
pass.
* R_L (Load Resistance): Represents the resistance of the next stage or
the actual load connected to the amplifier's output.
Working Principle
The working of the common emitter RC coupled amplifier can be
understood by considering its DC biasing and AC operation.
1. DC Biasing (No Input Signal):
* The resistors R_1 and R_2 form a voltage divider that sets the DC
voltage at the base of the transistor.
* This base voltage (V_B) causes a base current (I_B) to flow.
* Since the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, a voltage drop of
approximately 0.7V (V_{BE}) occurs across it.
* The emitter voltage (V_E) is then V_B - V_{BE}.
* The emitter current (I_E) flows through R_e and is approximately
equal to V_E / R_e.
* The collector current (I_C) is approximately equal to I_E (since I_C = \
alpha I_E and \alpha \approx 1).
* The collector voltage (V_C) is V_{CC} - I_C R_c.
* These DC voltages and currents set the "Q-point" (Quiescent
operating point) of the transistor in the active region, where it can
efficiently amplify the AC signal without distortion (clipping).
2. AC Operation (With Input Signal):
* When a weak AC signal is applied to the input, it is coupled through
C_{in} to the base of the transistor.
* This AC signal adds to and subtracts from the DC base voltage.
* When the input signal goes positive, the forward bias of the base-
emitter junction increases, causing I_B to increase.
* An increase in I_B leads to a larger increase in I_C (since I_C = \beta
I_B, and \beta is the current gain).
* As I_C increases, the voltage drop across R_c (I_C R_c) increases,
causing the collector voltage (V_C = V_{CC} - I_C R_c) to decrease.
* Conversely, when the input signal goes negative, the forward bias
decreases, I_B decreases, I_C decreases, and the voltage drop across
R_c decreases, causing V_C to increase.
* Thus, an inverted and amplified version of the input AC signal
appears at the collector.
* This amplified AC signal at the collector is then coupled through the
coupling capacitor C_C to the output or the next stage, blocking the DC
component.
* The bypass capacitor C_e plays a crucial role here. At AC frequencies,
its impedance becomes very low, effectively shorting the emitter to
ground for AC signals. This prevents the AC signal from causing a
voltage drop across R_e, which would introduce negative feedback and
significantly reduce the AC voltage gain.
Phase Inversion:
A key characteristic of the common emitter amplifier is that it provides
a 180-degree phase shift between the input and output voltage. When
the input signal goes positive, the output goes negative, and vice-
versa.
Frequency Response of Common Emitter RC Coupled Amplifier
The frequency response of an amplifier shows how its voltage gain
changes with the frequency of the input signal. For an RC coupled
amplifier, the gain is not constant across all frequencies. It generally
has a "mid-band" region where the gain is relatively flat and then drops
off at both low and high frequencies.
The frequency response curve typically looks like this:
f_H
(Lower Cutoff) (Upper Cutoff)
Low Frequency Mid Frequency High Frequency

Let's analyze the gain behavior in different frequency regions:

1. Mid-Frequency Region (Typically 50 Hz to 20 kHz for audio
amplifiers)
* Behavior: In this region, the voltage gain of the amplifier is relatively
constant and maximum. This is the desired operating range for audio
amplification.
* Reason:
* Coupling Capacitors (C_{in} and C_C): At these frequencies, the
reactances of C_{in} and C_C (X_C = 1 / (2\pi f C)) are very small,
making them behave almost like short circuits. This allows the AC
signal to pass efficiently from the input to the base, and from the
collector to the output/next stage, without significant voltage drops
across them.
* Bypass Capacitor (C_e): Similarly, the reactance of C_e is very low,
effectively bypassing R_e for AC signals. This prevents gain reduction
due to negative feedback.
* Internal Junction Capacitances: The internal parasitic capacitances
of the transistor (junction capacitances, like C_{be}, C_{bc}, etc.) are
negligible at these frequencies.
2. Low-Frequency Region (Below 50 Hz)
* Behavior: The voltage gain starts to decrease significantly as the
frequency of the input signal drops below the mid-band range. There's
a lower cutoff frequency (f_L) where the gain drops to 70.7% (or -3dB)
of its mid-band value.
* Reason:
* Coupling Capacitors (C_{in} and C_C): As frequency decreases, the
reactance of C_{in} and C_C (X_C = 1 / (2\pi f C)) increases. These
capacitors start offering significant impedance to the AC signal.
* For C_{in}, a larger voltage drop occurs across it, reducing the AC
signal reaching the base.
 * For C_C, it increasingly impedes the transfer of the amplified
signal to the load.
* Bypass Capacitor (C_e): At very low frequencies, the reactance of
C_e also becomes large. It no longer effectively bypasses R_e, meaning
some AC signal current flows through R_e. This introduces negative
feedback (voltage drop across R_e in phase with the input) which
drastically reduces the voltage gain.
* The combined effect of increased reactance of coupling and bypass
capacitors leads to a fall in gain at low frequencies.
3. High-Frequency Region (Above 20 kHz)
* Behavior: The voltage gain also decreases at high frequencies,
usually above 20 kHz for audio amplifiers. There's an upper cutoff
frequency (f_H) where the gain again drops to 70.7% (or -3dB) of its
mid-band value.
* Reason:
* Internal Junction Capacitances (Parasitic Capacitances): At high
frequencies, the internal parasitic capacitances of the transistor
(especially the base-emitter junction capacitance C_{be} and the
collector-base junction capacitance C_{bc}, also known as Miller
capacitance) become significant.
* Shunting Effect: These capacitances offer a low impedance path at
high frequencies, effectively "shorting" the signal to ground or creating
undesirable feedback paths.
* C_{be} shunts the input signal at the base.
* C_{bc} (Miller capacitance) effectively appears much larger due
to the voltage gain, shunting the input from the output. This
phenomenon, known as the Miller effect, significantly reduces the input
impedance and hence the gain at high frequencies.
* Wiring Capacitances: Stray capacitances between wires and
components can also become significant at very high frequencies,
further contributing to gain loss.
* The combined shunting effect of these internal and stray
capacitances reduces the effective signal reaching the transistor's
amplifying elements and overall reduces the amplifier's gain.
In essence, the RC coupled amplifier offers stable gain over a specific
frequency band (the mid-band), but its performance degrades at the
extremes due to the behavior of capacitors. This characteristic makes
it suitable for audio frequency applications, but less ideal for wideband
radio frequency (RF) amplification where more sophisticated coupling
techniques (like transformer coupling or direct coupling) might be
preferred.
3)...Draw the circuit diagram of a JK flip-flop and explain its operation
With the help of a truth table briefly
Okay, let’s break down the JK flip-flop.
Circuit Diagram
The JK flip-flop is a versatile flip-flop design. There are several ways to
construct a JK flip-flop, often using NAND gates or NOR gates in a
master-slave configuration. Here’s a simplified representation of a JK
flip-flop using NAND gates:
* J and K: Inputs, analogous to Set and Reset in an SR flip-flop.
* CLK: Clock input; the flip-flop’s state changes are synchronized with
the clock signal.
* Q and Q’: Outputs; Q’ is the complement of Q.
* NAND 1-4: NAND gates forming the core of the flip-flop. Feedback
loops from the outputs to the input NAND gates are crucial for the JK’s
behavior.
Operation
The JK flip-flop overcomes the “invalid” state of the SR flip-flop. Its
operation is defined by the inputs J, K, and the clock (CLK):
* J = 0, K = 0: No change. The flip-flop retains its current state.
* J = 0, K = 1: Reset. Q is forced to 0.
* J = 1, K = 0: Set. Q is forced to 1.
* J = 1, K = 1: Toggle. Q inverts its state (if it was 0, it becomes 1; if it
was 1, it becomes 0). This is the key difference from the SR flip-flop.
Truth Table
| CLK | J | K | Q(next) | Operation |

| ↑ | 0 | 0 | Q(current) | No Change |
| ↑ | 0 | 1 | 0 | Reset |
| ↑ | 1 | 0 | 1 | Set |
| ↑ | 1 | 1 | Q’(current) | Toggle |
* CLK: Indicates the rising edge of the clock signal (↑), where the flip-
flop’s state changes.
* J, K: Inputs.
* Q(next): The state of the Q output after the clock pulse.
* Q(current): The state of the Q output before the clock pulse.
* Q’(current): The complement of the current Q output.
The JK flip-flop is a fundamental building block in digital circuits, used
in counters, shift registers, and other sequential logic designs. Its
ability to toggle eliminates the ambiguity of the SR flip-flop and makes
it a versatile and reliable component.