__ CHAPTER IV MAGNETISM (For Mathmatics, Chemistry, Statistics & Geology Mains only) Introduction ‘All substances show certain magnetic properties. A small piece of iron when brought near a pole of a bar magnet is strongly attracted by it and sticks to it. Some substances are ‘weakly attracted by a magnet while some are repelled by it Formerly magnetic properties of a substance were attributed to tiny particles each of which was regarded as tiny magnet having two magnetic poles. The process of magnetising a body was supposed to be consequent of aligning these tiny magnets with their like poles pointing the same way. When it was discovered that magnetic effect could also be produced by electric cur~ rents, then all the magnetic properties of a substance were explained in terms of tiny current Joops within the substance due to the electron motions within the atoms. To study the magnetic behaviour of matter we have to define important magnetic vectors, Magnetic induction (or Flux density) B Ifacharge moving through a point experiences a lateral force, a magnetic field is said to exist at that point. The field is described by means of a vector called magnetic induction or flux density B. If a positive test charge qq moving with velocity v through a point in a magnetic field experiences a free F then the magnetic induction B at that point is defined by F = qx B. ‘The magnitude of the magnetic induction is thus defined by E B qovsind where @ is the angle between 7 and B. Unit of B is weber/metre? (Wom) or tesla (T). ‘The magnetic field can be expressed by ‘lines of induction’. The tangent at any point on the line gives the direction of the magnetic induction vector B. By convention, the number of these lines per unit area normal to their direction is equal to the magnitude of the induction B. Magnetisation When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the elementary current loops in the material become aligned parallel to the field. The material is then magnetised and acquires a magnetic dipole moment m. Magnetisation M of a material is defined as the magnetic dipole moment induced per amit volume of the material. If Vis the volume of the material, then. Pas: 80 MAGNETIS\, Unit of magnetisation : ampere/metre (Am~!) Magnetising field (or magnetic field intensity) 1 When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it becomes magnetised. ‘), capability of the magnetic field to magnetise the material is expressed by means of a ma netic vector H called magnetic intensity of the field. The magnetic behaviour of a material can be studied by keeping the material insi, a solenoid carrying current. The current through the solenoid produces a magnetic fic) within it and such a field is called magnetising field or magnetic intensity H. t The intensity vector H is related to the field vector B as B = igH, where 119 is th: permeability of free space. Ina permeable medium of permeability 1, B = 4H. Consider a long solenoid of , tums per unit length carrying current i, The magnetic field in the interior of the solenoid \, B= ni; H = B/yo = ni. Unit of H: It is measured in ampere/metre (Am~!), Dimension: L~! A. ‘The magnetic field intensity H is a vector whose direction is same as that of B Relation between the three magnetic vectors 5, f and Ni Consider a Rowland ring having a toroidal winding of N tums around it. When a current i is sent through the winding the material of the ring is magnetised along its circumferential length. The current i is the real (free) current which magnetises the ring ‘This magnetisation arises due to the alignment of elementary current loops (magnetic dipoles) re- sulting from electron motion in the material. Fig. 1 shows a section of the magnetised ring. The small circles represent the current loops. We see that ex- ccept at the periphery, every portion of each loop is Fin l adjacent to another loop in which the current at the point of contact is in opposite dircc- tion. As such, there is no net current inside the core. The current in the outer portions of the outer-most loops, however, remain uncancelled. Thus the whole network of electronic currents within the material can be replaced by a fictitious current i, circulating around the surface of the ring. Such a current is called Amperian surface current. A simple relation exists between the magnetisation M and the amperian surface cur: Tent is. Let A be the cross-sectional area of the ring and | the circumferential length of the ring. Volume of the ring = 1A The ring behaves as a large magnetic dipole of moment m =i. Bee ee A. Therefore magnetisation is Vig Fr ) Hence the magnetisation M is the surface current per unit length. This is also called magnetising current. The magnetic induction (magnetic flux density) B within the material of the ring arises due to the free current jin the winding as well as due to the magnetisation of the ring maa! inself curre forees ee ai MAGNETISM saself which can be described in terms of Amperian surface current Nii N o ig ag io (A= 4+M B= no Lee ) 10 (7 ) Here (Ni/l) is the free current per unit length and (is/l) is the Amperian surface current per unit length But (Ni/l) = ni =H ’ : . B = (Hl + M) ce) This is the relation between the three magnetic field vectors When no magnetic material is present in the core of the Rowland ring M = 0. There~ fore from equation (3) er ; B= jot 4) Magnetic susceptibility For isotropic para- and diamagnetic materials it is experimentally found that the mag- netisation M is proportional to the magnetic field intensity 7. That is BceTh cc. at ee ot The constant Xm is called magnetic susceptibility of the material. It may be defined as the ratio of the magnetisation M to the magnetising field H Xm =M/H. This has no unit. Magnetic permeability jx Let us consider the relation B = 1(H + M) From the equation for susceptibility M/ = yn H we write B = po(H + xmit) = wo(1 + xm) If we write ju = ji9(1 +.X,,,), then we have Bayt. where 1 is called magnetic permeability of the material. __ Magnetic permeability 1 of a medium is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction B to magnetic intensity H For vacuum X77, = 0 and 1 = ju. Hence magnetic induction in vacuum is Bo = uot ile Bo 0 Obviously pu = (1 + Xn) The unit of permeability is Wb/Am or N/A? or Hm~+ The ratio, Hr, is called relative permeability CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS According to their magnetic properties, different materials are classified into (i) Dia- magnetic substances (ii) Paramagnetic substances (iii) Ferromagnetic substances, This clas- sification depends on the magnetic dipole moment of the atoms of the material and algo the _ interaction among the atoms.B MAGNE 82 (i) Diamagnetic substances Antimony, Bismuth, Gold, Copper, Lead ete are examples of diamagnetic sut ‘The main properties of diamagnetic substance are: 1. When freely suspended in a magnetic field the diamagnetic substance sets it right angles to the direction of the magnetic field. to move from a region of stronger ficl In a non-uniform magnetic field it tend region of weaker field. ‘The susceptibility is small and nega! is independent of temperature. jan one. nv ive: 4, The susceptibility 5, The relative permeability ig slightly less th Z ii) Paramagnetic substances Ex: Aluminium, Chromium, Platinum, Manganese, Copper sulphat e, Liquid ox ete. ‘The main properties of paramagnetic substances are: 1. When freely suspended in a magnetic field the paramagnetic the direction of the field. 2, Inanon-uniform magnetic field it moves from a weaker (0 as 3, The susceptibility is positive and small. ly as the absolute temperature. 4, The susceptibility varies inversel ightly greater than one. 5. The relative permeability is My zt substance aligns itse| tronger region. (iii) Ferromagnetic substances Ex: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc. ‘The main properties of ferromagnetic substances are: 1. A freely suspended ferromagnetic material aligns itself in the direction of the applic: magnetic field. 2, In a non-uniform magnetic field it moves from a weaker to a stronge magnetic field. 3, The susceptibility is positive and very high. 4, The relative permeability is very high. Above a certain temperature 5, As temperature increases the value of xm decreases. known as Curie temperature, ferromagnetic become paramagnetics. tiferromagnetism ‘ - In some substances the electron spins are naturally - $ tt $ $ $ $ $ ferromagnetism oriented in antiparallel directions, resulting in a zero net magnetisation. In this case the substance is called anti- ) 4 3 $ ¢ $ $ $ ¢ ‘ferromagnetic. Ex: FeO, MnO, CoO and NiO. ‘Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism ‘Another type of magnetisation called ferrimag- eoe é $ é netism is similar to antiferromagnetism, but the mag- - nitude of the atomic or ionic magnetic moments in one ee Fig. 2 r region of the —Pons Mi gjrection are different from those oriented in the opposite direction, resulting im a net ow petisation that is very small. These substances are called ferrites, and generally represented py the chemical formula XOFe:0,, where X stands for Mn, Co, Ni, Cu. Mg, Zn. Cd ete Note that if X is Fe, the compound is FeyO4 or magnetite, which is one of the most common patural magnetic materials AGNETISM 83 phe electron theory of magnetism The paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic behaviour of substances can be explained in an elementary way in terms of electron theory of matter. Each electron is supposed to revolve round the nucleus. Each moving elections be- paves like a tiny current loop and has a magnetic dipole moment iA where is the equivalent current of the circulating electron and A the area of its orbit. Furthermore, each electron is spinning about its own axis. This spin also gives rise to a magnetic dipole moment. In general, the resultant magnetic dipole moment of an atom is the vector sum of the orbital ‘and spin magnetic moments of all electrons in the atom. Explanation of diamagnetism Diamagnetism occurs in those substances where atoms consist of an even number of electrons. The electrons of such atoms are paired. The electrons in each pair have orbital motion as well as spin motion in opposite sense. The resultant magnetic dipole magnetic moment is thus zero. Hence in a magnetic field a diamagnetic material has no effect. However the magnetic field modifies the motion of the electrons in orbits. The electron moving in a direction so as to produce a magnetic field in the same direction as the external field is slowed down, while the other electron is accelerated. The electron pair and hence the atom, thus acquire an effective magnetic dipole moment which is opposite to the applied field. Hence for diamagnetic materials M is opposite to H. So the susceptibility 2, of a diamagnetic material is negative and is very small. Explanation of paramagnetism In paramagnetic matérials the magnetic moment due to orbiting and spinning of the electrons do not cancel out. There is a net intrinsic magnetic moment in it. The molecules in it behave like tiny magnets, When such a substance is placed in external magnetic field, it will turn and line up in the direction of the field. Hence the material possesses a net dipole moment. Since M and B are in the same direction in paramagnetics the susceptibility Xm. is positive. When a paramagnetic material is heated, the alignment of the elementary dipoles are disturbed thermal agitation and the net magnetisation of the specimen decreases. Hence susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to its absolute tempera- ture. Xm =1/T Explanation of ferromagnetism Atoms of a ferromagnetic substance, like the atoms of a paramagnetic substance, have permanent magnetic dipole moment. What distinguishes ferromagnetic materials from, paramagnetic materials is that in ferromagnetic materials there is a strong interaction be- tween neighbouring atomic dipole moments that keeps them aligned even when the external———————————— MAGNET) 84 cd, This special type of interaction is called exc hange coupling. explained by quantum phy at room me of which show th are the elements of the ra ysics successfully predict yy. Compounds magnetic field is remov' classical physics change coupling ean be Familiar ferromagnetic substances Less familiar ferromagnetic substances, 50 at temperatures much below the room temperalir such as gadolinium and dysprosium, Modern quantum ph 1¢ five elements, Fe, Co, Ni, Gd and Dd: for example, CrOa, the basic ingredient of magnetic tay d oxygen are not fe ysics; not by temperature are iron, cobalt and ni \eir ferromagnetism fe cart ferromagnetism occur only for thi alloys also may be ferromagnetic: is ferromagnetic, But chromium and rromagnetic ‘The Curie temperature When the temperature of a ferromagnetic substance is raised, the effectiveness the coupling between neighbouring atoms decreases. Above a particular temperature This temperature at which « ferromagnetic substance becomes a paramagnetic substance. {ferromagnetic mat vetic-is called its Curie temperature. The Cur material becomes paramagn temperature of iron is 770°C, and that of gadolinium is 16°C. mee Domain theory of ferromagnetism ‘The ferromagnetism is associated with the magneti pairs of electrons, The result is a parallel orientation of regions called domains, which have dimensions of the order of 10” ‘ain 10"? 16 10% atoms. Tn each domain the coupling of atomic magnetic dipoles produces essentially perféct alignment of all the atoms, The direction of magnetisation of a domain | depends on the crystal structure of the substance, For example, for iron, which crystallize. with a cubic structure, the directions of magnetisation are along one of the three axes of the cube. In a ferromagnetic material there are many domains. The domains themselves may interaction between the spins o/ ff electronic. spins in microscopi 8 to 10~ !2m? and con | be oriented in different directions, giving a net effect that may be zero or negligible. Thus ‘an unmagnetised ferromagnetic substance gives a magnetisation of zero (Fig. 3) YY) f a | | Magnetic domainis: (a) unmagnetized substances, (b) magnetizati sy ization by domain growth, (c) magnetization by domain. coat: Fig. 3 In the presence of an external magnetic field B ir > Preses 0, the domains suffer two effects: those domains oriented favourably with respect to the magnetic field grow at the ioase 4 ae oriented less favourably due to a reorientation effect of the magnetic field (Fig. 3b): = i) a oe change the orientation of their permanent magnetic moments, fining il ex! magnetic field (Fig. 3c). In either case, there are 4 P z » now more dipoles aligned with the field. As the applied field becomes stronger, the moment of the PieceRE GRO oh roy VEU a a a MAGNETISM a limit when all reases, until finally with a very large external field the moment reaches a limit when all ¢ saturation moment. 85 incr the dipoles become parallel to the applied field. This limit is called th EXAMPLES v.1 A rod of magnetic material 0.5 m in length has a coil of 200 turns would over it uniformly. If a current of 2. is sent thorough it, calculate the (i) magnetising field, (ii) intensity of magnetisation (iii) magnetic induction and (iy) rela permeability of the material. =6 x 10-3 N = 200; 1 = 0.5 m; i = 2A; xn ; A=? M br = n= N/l = 200/0.5 = 400 @ H = ni = 400 x 2= 800 Am=! Gi) M = XmH = 6 x 10-3 x 800 = 4.8 Am q Gii) B = po(H + M) = 4x x 10-7(800 + 4.8) = 1.01 x 10 3 Wbm~ (iv) Ur = (1+ Xm) = 146 x 10-3 = 1.006 An iron rod 0.2 m long, 10 mm in diameter and relative permeability 1000 is placed inside a long solenoid wound with 300 turns/metre. If a current of 0.5 A is passed through the solenoid, find the magnetic moment of the rod. 1 1=0.2m; 5mm =5 x 10-9 m; fur = 1000; n = 300; i=0.5 A; m=? Mr =1+Am =1+(M/H) -. M = (ur — 1)H = (ur — Int M = (1000 — 1)300 x 0.5 = 149850 A/m. But M=m/V ».m=MxV=Mxar'l = 149850 x 3.14(5 x 10-8)? x 0.2 ie, m=2.35 Am? TV.3 A magnetic induction of 2 x 10~4Wb/m? in vacuum produces a magnetic flux of 2.4 x 10-8 Wh in a bar of cross sectional area 2 x 10~°m?, Calculate the inte ty of magnetisation. Bo =2x 10-4 Wbm~2; ¢ =2.4 x 10-8 Wb; A=2x 107°m?; M =? Bo = woH =2 x 10-4 Wb/m? @ B = o(H + M) = $/A =2.4 x 1078/2 x 107 = 1.2 x 10-9 Q MoH + woM = 1.2 x 107 ie,, 2 x 10-4 + yoM = 1.2 x 107% yoM = 10-3; M = 1073/pp = 1073/4m x 1077 = 7.96 x 107Am™! IV.4 Aniron ring of mean length 30 cm and area of cross section | cm? is wound with 300 closely spaced turns of wire. It is found that a current of 0.032 A flowing in the winding produces in the ring a flux of 2 x 10° Wb. Calculate the (i) flux density in the ring (ii) magnetic field intensity (iii) permeability (iv) relative permeability and (y) magnetic susceptibility of the material of the ring. 1=30cem=0.3m; A=1cm* = 1074 m?; N = 300;i = 0.032 A;86 MAGN; $= 2x10 Wh;B=? Ha? wa? pr =? Xm (i)B = 6/A = 2 1078/10"4 = 2 « 10-2Wbm~? (WH =n = (N/Di = (300/0.30) 0,032 = 32 Am (iii) B = pH, = B/H = 2x 1072/32 = 6.25 x 10-4Wb/Am (iv) ur = #/po = 6.25 x 1074/4n x 10-7 = 497.6 (W)pip = 1-+.Xmi Xm = br — 1 = 497.6 — 1 = 496.6 IVS A paramagnetic gas, whose atoms have a magnetic dipole moment |() ~ is placed in an external magnetic field of magnitude I T. At reom tempers, 27°C calculate and compare the mean Kinetic energy of translation an magnetic energy. (k = 1.38 x 10-8 J/K) (a) T = 273 + 27 = 300 K, k = 1.38 x 10-9 J/K; Ur ght = ; x 1.38 x 10778 x 300 = 6.21 x 10-775 Up= (b) m= 10-8 Am; B = 1T; Up =? Up = 2mB =2x 10-8 x1=2 x 10-85 (©) Up/Up = 6.21 x 1071/2 x 10-3 = 311 EARTH'S MAGNETISM (For Geology Main only) We know that a freely arretic north suspended magnetic needle comes | hia to rest in the north south di- North pole rection. Evidently there is a magnetic field on the surface of the earth, To a certain extent the field could be explained by considering the earth as a huge bar magnet. The magnetic poles of the earth do not coin- cide with the geographic poles. Hence the magnetic axis is in- clined to the geographic axis. Oe (Magnetic axis through ‘ Earth's the nappa at oiled Earth's axis * magnetic south pole south pole of the earth. The ge- Fig. 4 graphic axis passes through the geographic north pole and south pole of the earth. Ith: axis of rotation of the earth.) Since the north pole of the suspended needle points tov» north, the magnetic pole at the northern end of the earth should be a south pole, and that the southern end is the north pole, ‘The Earth's field can be considered to be that of a magnetic dipole, with a momen! m =8.0 x 1072 J/T (Am?). The field at the surface of the earth has a magnitude th’ 6° ee ee_ MAGNETISM 87 ranges from about 30 j/T near the equator to about 60 j/T near the poles, (For a dipole the magnetic field at any point on its axial line is twice the field at an equidistant point on the equatorial line). The axis of the dipole makes an angle of about 11.5° with the earth's rotational axis. What we call the earth's magnetic north pole, which is located in northern Canada, is in fact the south pole of the earth's dipole. The magnetic south pole of the earth, which is located in Antarctica, is the north pole of the dipole. In other words, when a compass needle is used to find the direction, the end of the compass that points towards the north is the true north pole of the compass needle; it is attracted towards the south pole of the earth’s dipole, which is near the geographic north pole of the earth. Magnetic meridian at a place Magnetic meridian at a place is the vertical plane passing through the given place, the magnetic north and the magnetic south. It is the vertical plane in which the axis of a freely gaspended magnet comes to rest at the place Geographic meridian at a place It is the vertical plane passing through the place, the geographic north and the geo- graphic south. THE ELEMENTS OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD The quantities that completely determine magnetic field of the earth at a place are called magnetic elements of the earth. They are (i) declination (ii) dip and (iii) horizontal intensity. (i) Declination (c:) : Magnetic The declination at a place is the angle between ‘meridian the magnetic and geographic meridians at the place. CeeennG The declination changes from place to place. meridian The lines joining the places of equal declination are called Isogonic lines. (ii) Dip (Inclination) 6 The dip at a place is the angle which the di- rection of earth's magnetic field makes with the hor- izontal. Dip changes from place to place. Line join- ing the places of zero dip is called magnetic equator. Dip is 90° at the magnetic poles. Isoclinic lines are the lines joining places of equal dip. (iii) Horizontal intensity (B),) The horizontal intensity at a place is the resolved component of the earth's field in the horizontal direction. If B is the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field and @ is the angle of dip at a place, Horizontal intensity at the place, Bj, = B cos @ and Vertical intensity at the place, By = Bsin@. (Refer Fig. 6).OY t 88 MAGNE, | Horizontal intensity is maximum along the magnetic equator and 2270 at may, poles. | -omal intensity are called Isodynamic lines Lines joining places of equal horic. Relation between dip and horizontal intensity Let B be the wial intensity of the earth's magnetic field and 0 the angle oy «, BB, is the horizontal intensity and By the vertical intensity of the earth's magnetic fe), place, itis easily seen that, By, = Beos@ and By = Bsin? | Tan@ = By/B, and B= / BP + B ° Fig.7 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE MAGNETIC ELEMENTS AT A PLACE. 1, Determination of declination (a) at a place Declination at a place is the angle between the geographic and magnetic meridian. the place. Hence it is necessary to determine the two meridians at the place (a) To determine geographic meridian ~ Accircle is drawn on a paper fixed on a horizontal table placed in an open place, A rod OP whose height is equal to the radius of the cirele is fixed vertically at the centre of the cir- cle, In the forenoon when the shadow of the rod coca are eee 8 is marked on the paper, In the afternoon when The rod OP fixed ver ew suspended over the Paper by Seaioniess fibre. the tips of the pins P; and Qy are mark and the positions P2 and Q» of the p*PEA 0c aren 9 a ape MAGNETISM 89 are again noted. PQ, and 2Q» intersect at O. The bisector My Mj of the angle POPs gives the direction of magnetic-meridian, Mj t os iQ -M P =Q Pp, Q@ p,/ Fig. 9 The angle between the magnetic and geographic meridians gives the declination at the place ie, ZGOM; = ZMOM! = a. 2. Determination of dip (0) at a place The dip ata place is measured using a dip circle. It consists of a uniformly magnetised needle mounted about a horizontal axis through its centre of gravity. It is free to rotate in a vertical plane in front of a vertical circular scale. The axis of rotation passes through the centre of the circular scale. The scale is graduated in four quadrants with zero-zero horizontal and 90-90 vertical. The arrangement is enclosed in a wooden frame provided with glass sides. The box can be rotated about a vertical axis and its position can be noted from a horizontal circular scale marked on the base of the instrument. The base is provided with levelling screws. Fig. 1090 Adjustments The base is levelled using spirit level 2. The box is rotated so that the magnetic needle remai } position the plane of rotation of the needle is perpen ‘Then the plane of rotation of the nee ins vertical reading 90-9; dicular to the magnetic 1. The box is rotated exactly through 90° the magnetic meridian. 4. The reading of the ends of the needle gives the dip att he place. Sources of error and correction 1. The axis of rotation of the needle may not coincide exactly with the centre circular scale, The error due to this is eliminated by taking readings on both ¢),, . the pointer. 2. The zero-zero of the circular scale may not be horizontal. To eliminate the err. to this the box is rotated through 180° and the readings are again noted . 3. The magnetic axis of the magnet may not coincide with the geometric axis. To ¢}, nate the error due to this the magnetic needle is reversed on its bearing and the aj, four observations are repeated. 4, The centre of gravity of the needle may not coincide with the axis of rotation o/ , magnet. To correct this the magnetic needle is demagnetised and then remagnetise, , the opposite direction and all the observations are repeated taking eight more read, The average of 16 readings gives the dip at a place. P 3, To determine Horizontal intensity (B},) at a place Horizontal intensity may be determined by using deflection and vibration magneton, ters. (Refer complementary practical physics page 79 by VAS publications—Determinatic, of M & By) MAGNETIC MAPS ‘The magnetic elements change from place to place, and are also different at differey times. It is found that many places have the same value of a magnetic elements. 1), magnetic state of earth is, therefore, best shown by constructing charts upon which line, ‘are drawn through places having the same value for of a magnetic element. Such maps « charts are called Isomagnetic charts. They are very useful to navigators. The following are the important lines drawn on magnetic maps. ; "L. Isogonic lines: _Isogonic lines are the lines joining places of equal declination. The map (chart) showing the isogonic lines is called Isogonic chart. 2. Agonic lines: Agonic lines are the lines joining places of zero declination. 3. Aclinic line (Magnetic equator): Aclinic line is the line joining place of zero dip. |, is also called magnetic equator, There are two places where dip is 90° or where the dip needle is vertical and are calle! magnetic poles; magnetic north pole and magnetic south pole. Isoclinals are roughly parallel to magnetic equator.MAGNETISM ” 4, Isoctinic Hines: Isoctinic lines (isoctinals) are the Hines joining the places of equal dip The map is called Isoctinic chart Map showing isoclinals (equal magnetic dip) Fig. 11 5. Isodynamic lines: _(a) Isodynamic lines of equal horizontal intensity are the line joining the places of equal horizontal intensity. (b) Isodynamic lines of equal vei vertical intensity. al intensity are the lines joining places of equal (c) Isodynamic lines of equal total intensity are the lines joining the places of equal total intensity. ‘The map showing isodynamic lines is called Isodynamic chart. 6. Duperrey’s lines (Magnetic longitude) Duperrey’s lines are the lines indicating the direction of the magnetic meridian. : Since the magnetic elements vary, survey is made and charts are revised after every 30 years. 5 Use of Magnetic Maps~Geomagnetic prospecting The value of the earth's magnetic elements at certain places may not agree with the values as deducted from the isomagnetic lines. These differences may be due to the fact that at the places considered there may exist abnormalities owing to the presence of magnetic deposits bearing iron, nickel, cobalt, magnetite etc., and certain igneous rocks (rocks formed by the solidification of lava poured out of a volcano) in the neighbouring portions of the earth's crest. From the amount of variation between the values of the elements obtained from the smooth curves and the actual measured values, it is possible to locate the position and extent of magnetic ores. Magnetic prospecting refers to airborne or ground surveys of variations in the earth's magnetic elements 10 locate magnetic deposits of iron, nickel, cobalt, magnetite, etc., and thereby to (i) find the age of the rocks formed by solidification of lava, (ii) detect volcanoes and (iii) oil and iron.re 92 MAGNETISM 1. Age of rocks | The lava poured off a volcano always contains small particles of magnetic iron that ac, dlified, the particle of iron becomes permanen, like floating compasses. When lava gets 20 lidified. From geological studies one can find records of the earth at the time the lava got sol the age of the layers of rocks formed from lava. 2. Detection of volcanoes ‘The volcanoes are more magnetic aS compared to ordinary rocks OF soils. So a dip ce of volcanoes. By Axing 4 diP needle behind needle is suddenly affected by the presch ship, an oceanographer can identify the kind of rocks in the sea. 3, Detection of oil and iron nly affected shows the presence of iron ore ‘The places where the dip needle is sudder Oil is also detected as itis associated with magnetite. ‘Atplaces where oil or iron deposits af present, a person flying in an ae to the ground can detect sudden change in dip in the dip needle. 4, Detection of gold and platinum mines ‘The gold and platinum mines also bave been det e of magnetic associated with iron. *Change of magnetic poles of earth-Lines showing the directional chang poles ‘The magnetic poles, north and south GN poles, are the two points where dip is 90°. The magnetic maps show that the ‘earth's magnetic north pole is located in northern Canada, about 2000 km from the geographical north pole. th pole is located in ‘The earth's magnetic sout ‘Antarctica. The positions of these poles change with time and the position in either pole de- ‘oval curve several km in diameter. It roplane close ected because these metals are also MN scribe an thas been seen that the earth's magnetic poles are rotating round its geographic axis in a cone MS: MS of semi-angle 17° with a period of 900 years in the east to west direction. . Variations of magnetic elements aR The magnetic elements of earth undergo changes with time at all places on earth a Sg de ar hse tn and aperi- ee : i n Se tras st magnetic elements with respect to time are called 1. Daily (or diurnal) variations The i 2 magnetic elements change during the day. These are found to be different at different ii hours. There are days when there is no change and there are also days of maximumPei Pipa eee ey : 93 MAGNETISM change. These changes are measured by means of magnetographs Ultraviolet radiations from the sun ionises the earth’s atmosphere and make it con ducting. A current begins to flow and it is associated with magnetic field. This is the cause of daily as well as the annual variations 2, Annual variations ‘These consist of small variations in magnetic elements which occur in opposite direc tions in northern and southern hemispheres, and they take one year to complete the cycles. 3, Lunar variations These are due to the tidal motion of the earth’s ionised layers and they are linked with the position of the moon. These variations occur nearly twice a day or 56 times in 28 days, je, at the same time interval as the tides. 4, Secular variations These are gradual changes in all the magnetic elements extending over a long period (960 year cycle). The magnetic axis of the earth spins about its geographic axis from east to west. So the declination undergoes a periodic change. 5, Eleven year sunspot cycle The sunspots face the earth after a period of eleven years. Since sunspots are regions of very strong magnetic field, there is lot of magnetic activity on the earth when the sunspots face the earth. 6. Irregular and aperiodic variations-Magnetic storms Sudden and violent changes in the value of magnetic elements which cannot be pre~ dicted, are sometimes produced simultaneously all over the world. They usually occur at the time of the display of the Aurora Borealis, which is most often seen as a glow on the northern horizon. Another reason for the sudden changes in magnetic elements may be due to the sudden appearance of a large sun-spot. Intense radiations and charged particles ejected from the sunspot reach earth’s surface and cause abnormal ionisation of the lower portion of the ionosphere. Consequently, large electric current are produced (atmospheric currents) which cause intense magnetic storms. These magnetic storms produce violent change in the magnetic elements **Global variation in the earth’s magnetic field—‘Aurora borealis’ and ‘aurora aus- tralis’ As we move away from the earth, its magnetic field decreases, and we begin to ob- serve modifications of the field resulting from the solar wind, a stream of charged particles - coming from the sun, As a result, a long tail associated with the earth’s field extends for many thousands of earth diameter. Because the sun has such a large effect on the earth’s magnetic field, even at distances of few earth radii, it can influence phenomena that involve the earth’s field, such as radio communication and the aurora. ‘The charged particles of solar wind get deflected to the earth’s magnetic poles by the earth's magnetic field. (On the magnetic equator these charged particles are entering Perpendicular to the earth's magnetic field and experience maximum force, F = Bqv.—_—- MAGNET! y 1e atmosphere above the po of giant curtains high up snorthern light” and in \) 94 So they are deflected to the poles.) 7 ar disp! ed ‘aurora borealis’ oF thern light". these particles ionise th y of light in the shape © which in turn cause a spectact the atmosphere. In the north it is cal called the “aurora australis’ or ‘soul MAGNETOGRAPHS uments used to me! south it fe the daily variations « survey. They give The magnetographs are portable ins cearth’s magnetic elements at a place for the Purpose of a magnet permanent record of the small variations in the terrestrial magnetic field, The three typ: zontal intensity magnetograph (horizont,| raph, hori tograph (vertical vat .d vertical intensity ind are incapable of measuring sma pservatory is equipped with magn he magnetic elements at thay ments; declination magneto! intensity magne! riometer), record respectively intensity an ‘The magnetographs are not of great precision a variations in the magnetic elements. So a magnetic tographs in addition to precision instruments for measuring ¢ station. 1. Declination magnetograph Itconsists ofa thin magnetic nee- dle SN fixed behind a small concave mirror (M). It is suspended from a t0r- sion head T by a phosphor-bronze fibre F with the plane of the mirror vertical and the magnet horizontal so that the magnet can rotate freely about a verti- cal axis. The lower end of the mirror is fixed to the base by mean of the same fibre. of instru variometer) and vertical i variations in declination, horizontal In the instrument designed by ‘Watson nine small permanent magnets are cemented on an aluminium centre piece. This is to increase the moment of the magnetic system. ‘The magnet, instead of a perma- Fig. 13 nent magnet, can be an electromagnet, having aod of numetal (nickel-iron alloy with a high permeability) as the core, round which a current is passed through the phosphor-bronze ti bre. the mirror. The reflected light from the ‘A narrow beam of light is allowed to fall on mirror is focussed on a photographic film wound upon a drum which rotates at & constant parallel to the axis of rotation of the magnet. speed. The film moves vertically The whole magnetic system is enclosed inside a thick copper box which provides the electrostatic damping. Hence the system is brought in equilibrium quickly when it is deflected. ‘The front side of the box is provided with glass window through which light can enter and leave. The case also protects the system from air current. ‘The suspended magnet remains in equilibrium along the magnetic meridian. Due toee eee nt nee are SM 7 MAGNET the daily variation, the direction of horizontal intensity 3), and hence the declination may change. So. the mirror tums according to the change in declination. If there is no change in the declination, the trace of the spot of light on the moving film would be a straight line but any deviations from this would indicate the change in the declination. Thus the curve traced upon the film indicates the variations in the declination. 2. Horizontal intensity magnetograph (Hot ntal variometer) The experimental setup is same as that of declination variometer. In the case of the horizontal variometer the suspended magnet is rotated, by twist- ing the suspension fibre using the torsion head, until the magnetic axis is perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. (Eschenhagon used quartz suspension fibre instead of phosphor- bronze). In the equilibrium position, Deflecting couple = Restoring couple ie, mBysin® = ca (a = angle of twist of the fibre) mBy,=ca (9 = 90°; m = 2p, Fig. 14 the moment of the magnet) +. Bh = (c/m)a =k (k= c/m,aconstant) +. 6B, =kba +.6B, «da If k = (c/m) is small, da will be large. To get greater deflection (a) of the mirror, c is made smaller and m greater. Any change in B), will produce a change in a and there is slight deflection of the magnet which is recorded on the film moving at constant speed. (Note that 6 never differs much from 90°). 3. Vertical intensity magnetograph (Vertical variometer) The vertical variometer consists of a thin long magnetic needle capable of rota- tion in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis passing through the centre of gravity of the needle. The axis is along the magnetic meridian so that horizontal intensity does not give rise to a couple tending to rotate the needle; the vertical intensity B, alone provides a deflecting couple. At the north- em hemisphere of the earth is the north pole Fig. 15 pointing downwards; whereas at the southern hemisphere the N-pole of the magnet points upwards. A small adjustable mass m is placed on the magnetic needle. Its position is moved along the magnet to make the magnet horizontal. In the equilibrium position NS (Fig. 16)MAGNET; 96 Deflecting couple = Restoring couple mB sin@ = ca; mBy = ca (6 = 90°) i By = (c/m)a = By = k x ba; 5By x 5a (Refer horizontal variometer) a es If k = (c/m) is small, a small yari- @ w ation in vertical intensity produces a large py’ variation in the angle of twist of the sus- Wie pension fibre. To make k small, we use a Hi thin long suspension fire (quartz fibre) of ¥PBy Fig. 16 Jow value of couple per unit twist c and a magnetic needle of high magnetic moment is | In order to respond to rapid changes in the magnetic field By, the magnet must be , light and long as possible. Ifthe magnet were supported on knife edges, any mechanical disturbance would cay. ess of the record also chang such a long and light needle to vibrate with loss in definiten in temperature would produce change in the magnetic moment (rm = 2lp), with result change in the position of equilibrium. In order to get over these difficulties Watson uscd ‘arrangement as shown in the Fig. 15 and Fig. 16. Watson's variometer consists of two magnets Vj5 and N2S2, which are 8 cm lop, and | mm in diameter. Two quartz rods B and C are fixed along the perpendicular bisector, of the magnets. These rods are fixed to a brightly polished quartz plate M which serves as , mirror (Refer the Fig. 16). A and D are two quartz fibres. One of the ends of A is conn: to B and the other end toa spring fixed to a rigid support. The fibre D is connected betwee the rod C and a torsion head T. The connections of the ends of the quartz fibres and the quartz rods are all made by fusing, so that the suspension consists entirely of homogeneou. fused quartz. The suspension is horizontally along the magnetic meridian. The position oi the rider m and the torsion head J’ are adjusted to make the magnetic system horizonta| ‘A narrow beam of light is totally reflected from a total internal reflecting prism P, falls on the mirror M, and retraces its path. The beam of light after reflection from the mirror is reflected by the prism towards the photographic film moving at constant speed. Any change 6By in the vertical intensity By causes the magnets and the mirror attached to them to tury until the change in the restoring couple balances the change in deflecting couple acting upon the system. The change is recorded on the film. The use of the quartz fibre for suspension renders the reading of the magnetomete: also independent of temperature variations for the elasticity c of the fibre decreases as the temperature rises, and the magnetic moment m of the magnet likewise decreases. Thus k = (c/m) is almost kept constant irrespective of the temperature variations. ted Cause of earth’s magnetism The features of terrestrial magnetism are so complex and the observed data are com paratively so meagre and contradictory that theories as to the origin and nature of earth'sPre MAGNETISM 9 netism are not on a fi mag m basis. Our only sources of information are: (i) the shape of earth's magnetic lines of force, and (ii) the values of earth's magnetic elements and theit variations as measured on the surface of the earth. Many theories have been put forward from time to time. But no theory so far suggested can satisfactorily explain all the observed phenomena regarding the earth's magnetism. We shall discuss here some of these theories: ert’s theory This theory is perhaps the oldest. Gilbert in 1600 stated that the earth is a great magnet. The earth's magnetism is due to the presence of a large quantity of magnetic (magnetic materials). But this theory had to be discarded because only a very small quantity of magnetite is found in the earth’s crest; earth is not completely made up of magnetic materials. It was then assumed that the core of earth contains a large amount of ferro- magnetic materials. But the temperature in the interior of the earth is so high that the ferromagnetic material cannot retain its magnetism. 2. Bond’s theory In the year 1676, Bond suggested that the earth is surrounded by a magnetic sphere whose axis is inclined at about 8°30’ to the axis of rotation. But this theory failed to explain the variations in the magnetic elements, 3. Halley’s theory In the year 1672, Halley suggested that earth consist of two magnetic shells having different rate of rotation. But this theory is insufficient to explain the variations in magnetic elements. 4, Grover’s theory In 1849, Grover explained the terrestrial magnetism on the assumption that it is due to an electric current circulating around the earth. The electric current is due to the radiations from the sun. The warm air ascends in the equatorial region and moves towards the north and south in the upper regions and gets electrified, These currents magnetise the ferromag- netic substances near the outer surface of the earth, presence of such electric current cannot account for the variations of magnetic elements. 5. Ionosphere theory Another theory is that the ionosphere around the earth at a height of about 80 km. produces earth’s magnetism. The ionosphere contain positive and negative ions. They are produced by the cosmic rays emitted from the sun. In the ionosphere convention currents produced by heating and cooling of the atmosphere cause the earth’s magnetic field. These currents vary with change of season and day. This explains the variations of magnetic ele- ments. During the magnetic storms the ionospheric current and hence the earth’s magnetic field become very intense. The ionisation increases as the altitude increases, Hence the earth's magnetic field should increase with altitude, But it is observed that the earth’s magnetic field decreases with height. Moreover the ionospheric currents cannot produce such a magnetic field as high as the earth’s magnetic field. The daily variations of magnetic elements may be due to the rotation of the earth.| oe MAGNETis ie 98 6. Dynamo effect-The source of Sir Bullard in England and Elasser ‘magnetism is within the earth itself Ibis © at a depth of 3000 km. There is a thick core of radi is in a molten state. It contains me! electric current. With the rotation of the earth about its axis, Saces a circulating surface current over the core. The circul the earth's magnetism. This is the latest theory oF geomagnetis Itis seen that the earth’s magnetic field extends upto & heigl cannot be produced by the circulating surface currents ove, the cor Srolent variations of magnetic elements are attributed 10 the powel the ionosphere due to magnetic storms. ‘Thus it may be concluded that the geomagnetism is partly due to the circulating su; s, From what has bee; face currents of the core and partly due to the ionospheric current: stated in the above theories, itis seen that no theory ‘about the cause of the terrestrial ma netigm is complete and the exact cause of the geomagnetisyn yet to be known. f earth's magnetism in USA suge used by electric current i rested that the source of terresi: in the earth’s liquid co, | 3500 km inside the earth. The core Of the ean, | other minerals which easily condy. t the core also rotates. This pri | ating surface current produce, | jus about Jted iron, nickel and m. nt of about 1 lakh km. Th; e. Moreover some of th ful currents flowing i; EXAMPLE ‘Africa, a compass points 12° west of geographic north tic needle of a dip circle placed in the plane of the above horizontal. The horizontal component of G. Specify the direction and magnitude IV.6 Ata certain location in ‘The north tip of the magne magnetic meridian points 60° the earth’s field is measured to be 0.16 of the earth field at the location. a = 12°,0 = 60°, B; Bp = Bcos@ . B= Bp/cos0 B =0.16/cos 60 = 0.32 G The total intensity of the earth’s field B is 0.32 G in the direction 12° west of the seogaphic meridian (geographic north) making an angle of 60° upwards with the Wa ae magnetic elements of the earth's field at a place are: declination 30° W, ip eee es —— intensity 0.4 x 10-4 T. Find the components of the ’ earth direction true north (geographic north), tru: - a pI ), true West and ver:Ee MAGNETISM ef a= 30°, By =0.4 x 10-4 T; 0 = 60; By =?; By =?; By =? By = Bycosa = 0.4 x 10-4 x cos 30 = 0.35 x 10-4 T Bw = Bysina = 0.4 x 10-4 x sin30 = 0.2 x 10-4 T By = By tana = 0.4 x 10-4 x tan60 = 0.69 x 10-4 T EXERCISES Essays 1. Discuss briefly the atomic origin of dia-, para- and ferro-magnetism. Define (a) magnetic induction (b) magnetisation (c) magnetising field (d) magnetic susceptibility and (e) magnetic permeability. Obtain relations connecting them 3, Describe the construction and working of a dip circle and explain how it is used to determine the angle of dip at a place. 4, Explain how the daily variation of the earth’s magnetic elements at a place may be continuously recorded. Short answer questions 1. Distinguish between diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances. Give the electron theory of magnetism. Explain “antiferromagnetism’” and “ferromagnetism”. Explain the domain theory of ferromagnetism. ‘What are the elements of earth’s magnetic field at a place? Explain. Discuss briefly the possible causes of the earth’s magnetism. Write a short note a geomagnetic prospecting, ‘What are the important lines drawn on the magnetic maps. PADMEYD Problems 1, The magnetic susceptibility of a specimen is 8 and permeability of the specimen. 2. A solenoid of 500 turns per metre is carrying a current of 3 A. of relative permeability 5000. Determine H, Xm, M and B inside the core. [Ans: 1500 Amo}, 4999, 7.6 x 10°Am~7, 9.4 T] 3, A soft iron ring has a mean diameter of 0.2 m and an area of cross section of 5 10-4m2, It is uniformly wound with a coil of 2000 turns and a current of 2 A is passed through it. The magnetic flux in the iron ring is 8 x 10-8 Wb. Calculate the relative permeability of soft iron. [Ans: 2000] 4, Horizontal intensity at a place is 0.3 x 104 Wm”. Ifthe dip at the place is 60°, find the total and vertical intensities at the place. [0.6 x 10-4 Wbm~2, 0.52 x 10-4 Wom™*} :00, Calculate the relative permeability [801, 10-3 Wb/Am] Tts core is made of iron