5

The Heat Engine Cycle

Id this chapter (he beat eDgine cycle is discussed more fully and gas power
cycles are considered ll can be shown that there is an ideal theoretical cycle
which is (be most eflldeDl conceivable: this cycle is called (he Camot cycle. The
highest (hennal efficiency possible for a heat engine in praaice is only about
half that of the ideal (beorelical Carnot cycle, between the same temperature
limits. This is due to irreversibilities in the actual cycle, and to deviations front
the ideal cyde, which are made for various practical reasons. The choice of a
power plant in practice b a compromise betvreen ihecmal efficiency and various
factors such as (be sire of the plant Ibr a given power requirement, mechanical
complexily. operating cost, and capital cosL

6.1 The Camot cycle

It can be shown from the Second Law of Thermodynamics that no heat en^ne
can be more efficleot than a reversiMe heal engine working between the same
lempersture limits fsee ret S.lh Camot showed ihst the most efficient possible
cyde b one in which all (be heat supplied is supfdted at one Used lempeniure,
and all the heal rqecied u rejected at a lower Used temperature. The cycle
therefore consuls of two boibcrtnal processes joined by two adiabatic processes.
Since all processes are reversible, (hen the adiabatic processes in the cycle are
also isentropie. The cycle u most conveniently represented on a T-s diagram
as shown in Fig. S.l.

Proceu I to 2 is Iseniropic espansion (rom T, to Ts.

Process 2 to 3 u isothermal heat rejection.
Process 3 to 4 u iseniropic compression from Fj lo T|.
Process 4 to I b isothermal heat supply.

The cycle b completely independent of the vvorking substance used.

The cycle efficieocy of a heal engine, defined in section 4.1, is given by the
net work oulpul divided by the gross heat supplied

1
-1» IQ (5.1)
Qx Qx
Tb0 Nmi En^lfl* Cycl*

Fig. 5il Cantoicyek

on a T^s diagram

In ihe Carnol cycle, wiih cefemtce to Tig. S.I.il can be leen lhal ihe graia heal
supplied. 0,, is given by Ihe area 4IBA4.

U. Q, - area 4IBA4 - T,(si —SaI

Similarly (he net heal supplied. is given by ihe area 41234,

ix. Ee-(r,-r,M*a-i.)
Hence we have Carnot cycle efikieocy

, (r.-r,)(s,-sj

it (5.2)
*1

11 a unk for heat rcjcctioa b available at a Used lempcraluie fj (eg a large

supply of cooling water k. then the ratioTj/T^ will decrease as the temperature
of the source T, b increased. From equation 112) it can be seen lhal as T]/r,
decreases, then the Ibennal eflkieiicy increases. Hence for a Itsed lower
lempcralure for heat rejeetioa. the upper temperaiure ai which heal is supplied
must be made as high as possible. The maximum possible ihcrmai eHicicncy
between any two temperatures u that of the Camot cycle.

Exampla 5.1 Wbal Is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heal engine operating
with a hoi reservoir of lumacc gases at 2000°C when ihc cooling water
available bal 10‘C2

So/uMn From equation (5.2)

10 + 273 . 283
- 1 -^- I -
Si 2000 + 273 “ 2273

Highest possible effidency w I - 0.1246

-0.8754 or 87.5454

It should be iwied lhal a system in praciice operating between similar

lemperalutes|eg.asleam-geneTalmg plant I would have a Ihcrmai efficiency of
about 30%. The discrepancy is due to losses due lo irreversibility in the actual

146
 K.2 Abtotutt t*mp*ralur* aul*

ptani, and also because or deviaiions froni ihe ideal Carnot cycle made for
various practical reasons.
It Is diificuli in practice to devise a sysleni which can receive and reject heat
at constant temperature. A wet vapour is the only working substance which
can do this conveniently, since for a wet vapour the pressure and temperature
remain constant as the specific enthalpy of vaporiaiion is supplied or rejected.
A Carnot cycle for a wet vapour is as shown in Fig. 5J. Although this cycle is
the most efficieni possible vapour cycle, il is not used in steam plant. The
iheorelical cycle on which steam cycles act based is known as the Rankine
cycle. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 8. and the reasons for using
it in preference to Ihe CamM cycle will be given.

Fig. fi.2 Camot cycle

for a wcl vapour on a
T-t diagram

5.2 Absolute temperature scale

In ibe preceding chapters a temperature scale based on the perfect gas

ibermomrteT has been assumed. Using the Second Law of Thermodynamirs it
is possible to establish a Icmperalure scale which is independent of the working
substance,
We have, for any heat cngiiie from equation (d.lj,

c.
Also the efficicTKy of an engrne operating on the Carnot cycle depends only on
Ihe temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs. Denoting temperature on an
arbitrary scale by X. we have
(5.3)

where d is a function, and X, and Xj arethe temperatures of the hot and cold
reservoirs.
Combining equations (5.1) and (5.31 we have

^•*ix,.x,t
Vi

There are a large number of possible lemperu'.urc scales which arc all
independent of the working substance. Any working scale can be chosen by

147
Th* HMt EngiA* CyelA

suitably seleciio; the valiK of Ihc funclion The funciion can be chosen lhat

Ic *2 (5.41
Cl ~X,
Also (ram equation (5.2) ne base

I) - I -
T,

Hence using equdoB ($.11

0. T.

I - IC (5.5)
Cl

Comparing equations 15.4) and (15) it can be seen that the temperature X
is equivalent to the lemperatucu T Thus by suitably choosing the (unction b.
the ideal innperaiure scale is made equivalent to the scale based on the perfect
gas ihennometer.

5.3 The Carnot cycle for a perfect gas

A Carnot cycie for a perfect gas is shown on a T-s diagram in Fig 5.3. Note
that the pressure of tbe gas changes contmuously from p4 to Pi during the
Isoibennal heat supply, and from p, to p, during the isothermal beat rejectioa
Id practice it is much more convesienl to heat a gas at approximately constant
pressure or at constant volume, hence it is dillicult to attempt to operate an
actual heal engmc on the Carnot cycle using a gas as working substance. Aooihar
important reason for not auempting to use the Carnot cycle to practice is
illustraled by drawing the cyck on a p-r diagram, as in Fig 5.4. The net work
output of the cycle is given by the area 12341. Thb is a small quamiiy compared
with the gross work output of Ibe expansioo processes of the cycle, given by
area 4I2BA4. Tbe work of the compression prooetses (U. work done on the
gas) is given by the area 234AB2. The ratio of the net work output to the gross
work output of the system is called (he work ratio. The Carnot cycle, desjnte
ill high thermal efflciency, hu a low work ratio.

Fig SJ Csmot cycle

(or a perfect gas on a
T-s diagram

149
 S.3 Tha Carnot cyelo for a parfoet gaa

Fig. ^4 Carnot c^cle

on a diagram

Eaampip S.2 A hot marvoir at 800*C and a cold mcrroir at 1 $ are available. Calculate
the tbemal eflidency and (he work ratio of a Carnot cycle using air as the
working fluid, if the majitmum and minimum pressures in the cycle are
210 bar and 1 bar.

Solution The cycle is shown on a T-s and p-v diagram in Figs 5.5(a) and 5.5(b)
respectively.
Using equation (5.2).

r, 800 + 273

Ic—. = <»-772 or 73JS

In order to find the work output and tbe work ratio it is necessary to And the
entropy change (S| — s^y
For an isothermal process from 4 to A. using equation (4.12),

s. - J. - «j = a2*71"^^) = IJ35 U/kg K

At coDsiaot pressure from A to 2. we have

Fig. 15 Carnot cycle

CaiTiot qfCle J» - J, - - 1.005 Inf—) - 1.321 kJ/kg K
for Example
tnpk5ion^-»
52 on * ‘ ' \tJ \ 288 / *
and T~a diagrams

149
Th* HMt EnoifM

iherdore

J, - s. - I.SJS - 1.MI » a214 kJ/kg K

Then

Neiworko«lpul-(T, - T,K*i -».)-area 12341

-<1073 - 2S81 X 0.214 ID I68kJ/kg

Cross work ouipui is

Work output 4 to I + work output 1 to 2

From equation (3.12) for an isothermal process. Q + II'- 0.

i.e. — H'* ) — ^—1 — area under line 4-1 on Fig. S.5(al

-(s, -S4)< r, -0.214 X 1073

-229.6 kJ/kf

For un isentrcqsk process from I to 2. from equation (3.13). Il'a)u, - u,).

therefore for a petta gas

-K'j.i-c.fT,-r,)

= 0.718(1073 - 2881 = S63.6 kJ/kg

TlteTefore

Gross work output — 224.6 + 363.6 - 743.2 kJ/kg

net work output 168

Work ratio — = 0.212
grosswork output 793.2

6.4 The conetent pressure eyel-

In this cycle the heat supply and heat rejection processes occur reversibly at
constant pressure. Tlie eipansion and compression processes are isentropic.
The cycle is shown on a T-s diagram and a p-c diagram in Figs 5.6<a) and
3.6(b|.ThiscyclewBsaloiiGlimetisedasiheidealbasisrorabo(*air reciprocating
engine, and the cycle was known as the ioute or Brayton cycle. Nowadays the
cycle is the ideal for the closed cycle gas turbine unit. A simple line diagram
of the plant is shown in Fig 3.7, with the numbers corresponding to those of
Figs S.6IB) and 3,6<bL The working sabsiance is air which flows in steady flow
round the cycle, hence, neglecting velocity changes, and applying the steady-IIow
energy equation to each pan of the cycle, we hate

Woik input to compressor - (h< — hi) = c^fTj — Tj

Work output from turbine = (hj - h,) - c,(7i - T»)
Heal supplied m healer - (h) - ft] I - c,lT, - Fil
Heat reined bi cooler = Ihe -h|l = c^7; - F,!

ISO
 6.4 Thtcomunt prMcur« eycl*

Fif. M Comiani
prasure cycl« on p-p
and T-f diagrams

rig. 1? Oo9a<l*<yde
gu lurbine unit

Thco from eqwiion (5.1)

iQ c,iT,-T,i-c^T,-T,) ^ T,-T,

Q. c,lT,-T,) T,-T,

Now since ptocesses I to 2 and 3 to 4 an isentropic beiween (he same

pressures pj irK] Pi. we have, using cqualion i3.2lh

T, (r'"-s rt'-”"

where r, is the pressun ratio, pj/p,.

u. and T,

Hence, substituting in the expression for (he eflicieiicy

T«-r, j_
. t - , 1 -- (5.6)
^-lor
(r.-r.K’-
Thus for (Ik constant pressure cycle (he cycle efficiency depends only on
the pressure ratio. In the ideal case the value of} for ait is constant and equal

151
Th# HMt EJig[/i« CycU

to 1A In practice, due to thecddyug of ibe air as it flows Ihiough the compressor

aisd turbine wbich are both rotary machioes, the actual cycle efficiency is
greatly reduced compared to that given by equation ($.6).
The work ratio of the constant pressure cycle may be found as follows:

Work ratio - Net work output _ c,ir, - r«l-c,(r, - r,)

Crouirarkoutpwt e^rj-T^I

Now, as previously.

r. ' T.

therefore

T,
atsd 7;
r"-"”

Hence substilutiag

r,(r»-‘»-l)
Work ratio-
Tl[l -d/r';-"'’)]

Le. Work ratio — 1 - t/' (5.7)

It can be seen frtsin equation (57) that the work ratio depends not only on
the pressure ratio but also on the ratio of the minimum and maaimum
temperatures. For a gives inlet temperature. r„lbe maiiniuiD temperature, T,,
must be made as high as possible for a high work ratio.
For an open^cycle gas turbine unit the actual cyde is not such a good
apptoiimalion to the ideal constant pressure cycle, since fuel is burned with
the air, and a fresh charge is continuously induced into the compressor. The
ideal cycle provides oevertheiess a good basis for comparison, and in many
calculations ftsr an irieal open<yc]e gas lurbioe the effects of the mass of fuel
and the charge in the woikiog fluid arc itegleacd.

Enampln 6.3 In a gas turbine unit err is drawn at IX)2bar and I5*C. and is compressed
to 6.12 bar. Cakulaie the ihcimal ellicieney and the work ratio of the Ideal
constant pressure cyde. when (be maximum cyck temperature is limited to
K»*C.

Solution The ideal cyde b shown on a T-s diagram in Fig. 5.8. From equation 15.6)

I
Thermal efficiency, q —

i.e. II- 1-0.599

\6i2/
152
 S.6 Th* Airsund»rd cyctB

Fig. S.S T-5 dHgram

for Eiample 5.3

ihcidoiT

Thennal (flicKnc)' >0.401 or 40.1%

The net worii output of the cycle n given by the work output of the turbine
minus the work input in the compressor.

ie. Net work output > c^tTj — 7^) — c^f Tj — T|)

From equation 13.21)

therefore

T, - 1.669 K r, > 1.669 « 28K > 480.5 K

where r, - 15 v 273 = 288 K and

T. = = — = 642.9 K
1669 1 669

where Tj - 800 + 273 = 1073 K. Therefore

Network output - 1.00511073 - 642.91 - 1.005(480.5 ~ 288)

- 238.8 kj/k|

Gross work output ■ work output of the turbine > e^(7^ - 7^)

• t.005ll073 - 64I9)-4323Uikg

networfcoulpvl 238.8
Then Work ratio > • a553
grosswork output 432.3

5.6 The air standard cycle

Cycles in which the fuel is burned directly in the working fluid are not heal
engines In the true meaning of the leim since the system is not reduced to its
initial stale. The working fluid undergoes a chemicaJ change by combustion

153
TK* HMt Eflflifl* Cycl*

and (be resulting products ate exhsiisied to (be atmosphere. In practice such
cycles arc used frequently and are called internal-combustion cycles. The fuel
is burned directly in the working fluid which is normally air. The main advantage
of such power units is (bat high temperatures rtf (he fluid can be attained, since
heat is not transferred through metal walls to the fluid. It is seen from
equation OJk i) • I -(T|/T,L that for a given sink for (be rejection of heat
at T], the (einperaiure of the source, T,. must be as high as possible. This
applies to all heat cornea. By supplying fuel inside the cylinder as in the
iniemaJ-coinbiution engine, higher temperatures for the working fluid can be
attained. The maiimiun tetnperalure of all cycles is limited by the metallurgical
limit of (he malerials used. The fluid in an inlema]<ombus(jon engine may
reach a (empcralure as high u 3000 K. This is made possible by esiemally
cooling tbe cylutder by water or air cooling; also, due to the intermittent nature
of the cycle, the srorking fluid retches its tnaximum temperature for only an
instant during each cycle.
Eaampks of intent-combustion cycles ate the open cycle gas turbine unit,
the petrol engiiie, the diesel engine or oil engine, and the gas engine. The open
cycle gas turbine unit, although an intenial combustion cycle, is nevertheless
is a difleient category to tbe other intetiial-cambuslion engines: the cycle is a
steady-flow cyde in which the working fluid flows from one component to
another round (be cyde. It will be assumed, therefore, that the gas turbine unit,
whether operating on the open or the closed cyde. can be satislaciorily compared
with (he idea] constant pressure cyde. dealt with in section 5.4. Gas turbine
cycles are considered in more detafl in Chapter 9.
In the petrol eogiae a mixtute of air and petrol is drawn into the cylinder,
compressed by (be piston, then ignited by an electric spark. The hot gases
eipand. pushing (he piston back, and are (hen swept out to exhaust, and the
cycle recommences with (be induction of a fresh charge of petrol and air. In
the diesel or oil engme the oil is sprayed under pressure into the compressed
air at the end of the compressioD stroke, and combustion is spontaneous due
10 the high temperature of the air after compression. In a gas engine a mixture
of gat and air is induced into the cylinder, compressed, and then igniied as in
tbe petrol engine, by an ckctric spark. Reciprocating internal-combustion
engines ate consideted in more d^il in Chapter 13. To give a basil of
comparison for the actual mienutl-combuiiion engine the air standard cyda is
defined. In an air uanJard cyde the working substance is assumed to be air
ihrougboui. all processes are assumed to be reversible, and the source of heal
supply and the sink for heat rqection are assumed to be external to the air,
The cycle can be repinsenied on any diagram of properties, and is usually drawn
on Ihe p-c diagram, since this allows a more direct comparison to be made
with the actual engine machine cycle. It must be stressed that an air standard
cycle on a p-c diagram is a true (heimodyDaraic cycle, whereas a record of
pressure variations in an engine cylinder agamsl pision displacement is a
machine cyck.

1S4
 Tll« Otto CTC(«

S.6 Th« Otto cycle

The Olio cycle is the ideal air standard cycle Tor the petrol engine, the gas
engine, and the high-speed oil engitie. The evde is shown on i p-e diagram in
Fig. 5-9.

Process I to 2 is iscniropic Compression-

Process 2 to 5 is reversible constant volume heating-
Process} to 4 it tseniropk eipantion
Process 4 to I is reversible constant volume cooling.

Fig. It Otto cycle on

• p-v disgram

To give a direct comparison witb an aaual engiDe the ratio of the specific
volumes, c,/r}. is taken to he the same as tbe comptessinn ralin nl ihe actual
engine.

ic. CotBpfessionnlia,r, ■ —
"s

swept volume -r clearance volume

(5.8)
deamocavoluttsc

Tbe ihetmai efficiertcy of the Otto cycle can be found using equation (5.IX

fl.
The heat supplied. C|, at constant volume between Ty and Ty ii given by
equation (2.15) per utul mass of ait

ei-e.(T,-r,)
Similarly the heal rqecled per unit mass at conitanl volume between 7^ and
r, is given by cqualton IZI3), r.(7^ - r,l
Tbe processes I to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic and therefore there is no heat
flow during these processes. Therefore

£2 cAT,-T,)-c.IT,-T,)
Q, e,(T,-Ty|

165
Th» Haxt Engine Cv<He

Nowsincc processes I lo2aDd 7 (o4areiscnlropic. (hen using equation (3.20).

where r, is the compression ratio from equation i$.8).

Then Tj-Tef’' and r,-T,r;-‘

Hence substituting

T.-T, I
(5.9)
(r.-T.W'*' ry

It can be seen from equation (5.9) that the thermal efficiency of the Otio cycle
depettds only on the compression ratio, r,.

Example 6.4 Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on the Otto cycle for
a petrol engine with a cylinder bore of SO mm. a stroke of 7S mm. and a
clearance volume erf 21.3 cm*.

Solution Swept vedume « j x SO* x 75 = 147200 m* = 147.2 cm*

Therefore

Total cylinder volume w 147.2 4- 21.3 = 168.5 cm*

ie. Compression ratio, r, ■ - 7.914/1

Then u»ng equation 159)

n - 1 - -L - 1-!— _ I _ 0.437.0.563 or 56.3%

rj- 7,914'’‘

S.7 The diesel cycle

The engines in use today which arc called diesel engines are fur removed from
the original en^nc invented by Diesel in 1892. Diesel worked on the idea of
spontaneous ignition of powdered coal, which was blasted into the cylinder by
compressed air. Oil became ihe accepted fuel used in compresstan-ignition
engines, and the oil was originally blasted into the cylinder in the same way
that Diesel had intended to inject the powdered coal. This gave a cycle of
operation which has as its ideal counterpart the ideal air standard diesel cycle
shown in Fig. 5,10.
As before (he compressioo ratio, r,, is given by the ratio Vj/t'].

Process I to 2 is iscolropic compression.

Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating
Process 3 to 4 b Hcnlropic espansion.
Process 4 to I b reversiMe constant volume cooling

156
 9,7 nw dieni eyde

Fit< Sili) Diesel cytk

on 6 p-v diagram

From equaiion (5J)

c.
Al consunt pmsurc from equation 12.121 per kf of air

0i

Abo at cogsUioi volume from equaiioD (2.1)1. per kilogram of air the heal
rejecied is ir,( TV — Tj k
There is no beat flow in processes I to 2 and ) lo 4 since these processes
arc iscDiropic. Heirce by substiiuting in the eipre^sion for ihermul efikiency
the following equation may be derived:

Ifa 1- (5.10)
<^-ikr’T
where p « Vj/ft * cvt.ofT rscio.
E<)uatioa IS.IOI showit that ihe tbcnrul eflickney depends nnl only on (he
compression ratio but also on the heat supplied between 2 and 3, which lises
the ratio, Cj/C]. tiqualion (IIU) is derived by expressing each lempcraiure in
terms of T, and % or p. The derivation is not given here because it is believed
that Ihe best method of working out the thermal eflicieney is to culculule eoch
temperature individually round the cycle, and then apply etjualion (3.IX
1 - ^QIQi- Thb is illustrated In Esampic S S.

Example 5.E A dKsel engine has an inlet temperature and pressure of 15 C and I bur
respectively. The compression ralio is 12/1 and the maximum cycle
temperature is 1100 °C. Cakulale the air standard thermal elftaency bused
on the diesel cycle.

So/uo'on Referring to Fig 5.11.7, - 15 + 273 - 288 K and T, - 1 lUO + 273 •> 1373 K.
From equalioD 13.201

t-fe)’""-'-"--"
U. Tj = 17 * 288 = 778 K

167
Th« H«at Engjna Cyci*

Fit. 5.11 Diesel circle

on a p-p diagram for
Ekample 5J

At conaUAt prtisitn from 2 to X unce pt^ RT tor » perfect gaa. thra

Zk.fi
Ti Pj

U. fi IZZZ 1.765
», " 778

Thetefote

fl = fsfi.fifi.,2«_L.6.8
Cj ^2^’} 1.765

Then using equation (3.20)

U73
ie. T. 638 K
'ZIS3

Then from cquiiioo (2.12). per kilognm of air

fi< 7,)- 1.005(1373 - 778)-598 kJ/kg

Also, (roffl equaiioo (113), per kUogram of air. the beat rejecied it

e.(r. - r,) - 0.718(638 - 288) - 251 kJ/kg

Therefore from equaiioa (5.1)

ZQ 598 - 251
058 or 58H
e. " 398

5.8 Th* dusl'Comlxiotion cycle

Modero oQ eopnes, allhough still called diesd eogioes. are more closely derived
Irocn an eogiiie inveoted by Ackroyd-Stuail io 1888. All oil engioea today use
solid iiqeciioD of the fud; the fud is injected by a sprisg-loadM iojeclor. the

156
 M Th« dual-combuatlon cycl*

fu«l pump being operated by i cam diiven from the eagiae crankshafl (aee
section Tbe ideal cycle used as a basis for comparisoii is called (be
dual-combustion cycle or the nised cycle, and is shown on a p-p diagram in
Fig J.li
Process 1 to 2 is iacntropic compressioo.
Process 2 to 3 is reversible consiaal volume healing
Process 3 to 4 is reversible constanl pressure heating
Process 4 to S is iseniropic eipansion.
Process S to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling

FI(.S.12 Dual
combusrion cyck on a
<lia|ram

Tbe beat is supplied in two pans, the first part at constant volume and the
retnaindei at constant pressure, hence the name 'dual-combustion'. In order to
fis the thermal eUtciency cotn|deiely. three &clors are necessary. These are the
compresdon ratio, r, = Pi/ps- the ratio of pressures, h = and the ratio
of vcduines, f ^ cj/cs-
Tben it can be shown that

-kf -\-
[(*~l) + y*(^-l)]e' '

Note that when It - I (ix. pj - p]|. then (he equation (S.ll) reducea to (be
thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle given by equation (3.10). The clficiency of
the duel-combustion cycle depends not only on the compression ratio but elso
on the relative amounts of heal supidied at constanl volume and at constant
pressure. Equation {3.11) is much loo cumbersome to use, and the best nielbod
ofcakutaiing thermal efficiency is to evaiuate each temperature round ihe cycle
and then use equalioD (3.11. q * 'fbe heat supplied, Q,, is found by
using equations (1I3| and (2.12) for Ihe heat added at conitani volume and
at CDDSlanl pressure respectively,

ix. e, - cJT, - T,) -f c,(T. - r,)

Tbe heat rejected it given by r,(T) - T,L

Example 6.6 An oil engine lakes in air at IDI bar, 20‘Cand Ihe maximum cyde pressure
is 69 bar. The compressor ratio is 18/1. CalciUale the air standard Ihermal
efficiency based on the dual-combustion cycle. Assume that the beat added
at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure.

159
TiM H««t Enflio*

n«.5.l3 Dual
eoiDbiucjoo cycle far
Euople S.6

Solution The cyde is shown on a p-r diagram is Fig. 5.13. Using equation (3.20).

U. r,-3.l8 X r,-3.18 X 293-931 K

vrben r, - 20 + 273 - 293 K.

From 2 (o 3 Uk proces □ at corutaat vohuae. bcscc

P3_2i PlOj PlOl

ance aitd -B,
Pj t. T, Tt

B, 69 X 931
I*. T, - — X Tj --
Pi Pi

To find P], lue equatioD (3.19k

?J-f?iy-18-*-57:2
Pi \«j/
■X. p, - il2 X l.OI -STJbar

Then iut»tiiuiiog

Now lh« bear added al conslani volume ii equal lo the heat added at coruiani
preuure la (his eaample. therefore

e^r. — T|) — e^CT. — T.l

Le. 0718(1112-931)- ixnsir.- 1112)

therefore

r.- I.OOS

ix. T.- 1241.4 K

160
 S.9 Mma •ffKtIvB prBUi>r«

To'find Tj il a ncccuary to know the vilue of the volume ratio, us/114,

At coDsiani pressure from 3 to 4

^ 5 1241.4
I.II6
MI2

‘nierefore

[«.I4
V, V4
V4 V]e4
v,e4 I.II6

Thes using equation i)JO|

■ 16.14* * - 3.04
t-©"'
1241,4
:40gK
3.04

Now the heat supplied, Q,, is given by

(2.=c,(r,-T,) + e^T4-Tj) or 8. - 2e,(T, - T,)

since in this eiample the beat added at consuni volcune is equal to the heal
added at coDstanl pressure. Therefore

Q,=2x 0.718 K (1112 - 931) >= 260 kJ/kg

The beat rejected is given by

c.(r, - T,)-6718(408 - 2931- 82.6 kJ,'kg

Tiieo from equation |4Jj

To 260-826
r| - fei --» 1 - 0.318 - 0.682 or 68.2 V.
e, 260

Il should be mentioned here that the modem high-speed oil engine operales
on a cycle for which the Otto cycle is a better basis of companson. Also, since
the Otto cycle calculation for thermal efficiency is much simpler than that of
the duaknmbusiion cycle, then Ihn is another reason for using the Olio cycle
as a standard of comparison.

B.9 Mean effective pressure

The term work rolio is defined in section S.3, and is shown to be a useful
criterion for practical power plants. For lotemal-combusiion engines work ratio
is not such a useful concept, since the work done on and by the working fluid
lakes place inside one cylinder. In order to compare redprocaling engines
another term is defined called the /ircun effMirf pressure. Tbe mean effective
pressure is defined as the height ofa rectangle having the same length and area
as the cycle plotted on a p-c diagrassL This is illustrated for an Olto cycle in
Fig. 5.14. Tbc rectangle AKDA is the same length as the cycle 12341. and area

161
Tha HMt Eiiffifla Cvela

Fig. S.U Man

dtoivc preuure on «
p-v dUgnm

ABCDA is equil to area 12341. Theo the mean effective prcuure« p.. is the
height AB of the ncumgle. The wwk output per lilogntn of air caa tberefoio
be written as
- IF-atea ABCDA-p.(v,-e2) (J.12)

The term (e, — r^lisproportKmalto Ibeswept volume of the c^iiDder, hence

it can be seen from equation ($.12) that the mean eSeciive preisure gives a
measuce of the work output per sw^ volume. It can tberrfore be used to
compart similar eogioes of different size. The mean eSective pressure discussed
in this section is for the air standard cyde. It will be shown in Chapter 13 that
the indicated mean eflective pressure of an actual engine can be measured from
an indicaior diagram and us^ to evaluate the indicated wort: done by the engine.

Example 6.7 Calculate the mean efleetive pressure for the cycle of Example $.6.
Soiotion In Example $.6 the beat supplied, Qi, and the cyde efficiency were found to
be 260 kJ'kg and 682% lespectively. From equation (4.2)

-)F

Iliemforc
- IF - e(2, - 0.682 X 260 - m U/kg

Now from the definition of mean effective pressure, and equation ($.12), we have

-Wm pje, - c,)

Using equalion (2$), pt~RT and equation (S.8).r, • e,/e] - 18, then

f e,\ 17 ITfir, 17 x 287 x 293

'l - Fr “ " jgF, “ jg “ |g , , Q, , IQS

ie. e, - e, - 0.786 mVkg

Then substituting

-)F = p,xft786 or p.=-lF,'ft786kJ/ra*

177x10’
«. Mean elfeciive pressure = —,-= 225 bar
10’ X 0.786

162
 9,10 Tht StlrflAO WM) Erietioiv cyclM

5.10 The Stirling and Ericsson cycles

It has been shown that no cycle can have an efficiency greater than that of the
Camoi cycle working between given leniperaiure limits T, and fj. Cycles which
have an efficieocy equal to that of the Carnot cycle have been dehned and ace
known as the Stirling and Encsson cycles mod (hey are superior to the Carnot
cycle in thet they have higher work ratios.
The Stirling cycle is shown in the p-c diagram In Fig. S.I5{a) and is
represented diagtammaticaliy in Fig S.ldlb): it must be emphasized ihai this
is nol a physical description of a Stirling engine but one which may help to
give an undeisianding of Ihe way the processes which make up the cycle are
related.

Hf.gtS Stirling ReacnctiTur

engine and the Stirling

cycle

'Scfacmalic' icpracnialion of (he Surhos cngiac

la) (bl

Heal is supplied to the working fluid from an external source, process 2-3.
as the gas expands isothennilly 4 * Tjl, and heat is reiecied to an external
sink, process 4-1. as the gas b compressed isothermally |T| = 7^|. The two
isothermals are connected by the reversible constant volume procesKS 1-2 and
3-4 during which the tcroperaiuit changes are equal to (Tj - T,). The heat
rejected during process 3-4, — T|k is used to heal the gas during
process I -l,e,tT, - T|) »c,|T| - T^land this is assumed to take place ideally
and revenibly in a regenerator. The regencraior requires a matrix of material
which separates the heating and cooUag gases, but allows the temperatures to
change progiessively by infiniiesiinal and eoriesponding amounts during Ihe
processes. This regenerative process takes place at consliol vdume and it
Iniemal to the cycle.
The efficieocy of the Stirling cycle it obuined by contideriog Ihe beat irantfera
between Ihe system and Ihe bodies eiiemal to it. le. a high-iemperalurt heal
supply and a low-iempentutc sink to which heal is rejected.
Heal supplied from the hot souiee, using equations (3.11) and (3.12),

Qi.i ~ - IH-r ~ ^ ^^

163
Th« HMt EA^In* CyeU

Similarly

Heat re)teui to the coldsink • HV.| •• UT,

therefore

and ai the cycle efflcicQcy, i •SC/Ci->. therefore

For tbe coosiaat volua« process 1>Z

£2*12 and /or process £2 a« I2 •

Pi P* ^ T",
Ibeidbrt

£! = £» and Pj _Pl
Pi p* Pi Pi
therefore

rt ■ 1 — — «the Carnot efBoency

Thia Tcault can be deduced without formal ;voof at the heat supply and rejeotion
procaascs take place at coasiant temperaturea

network output ->H.s+ **;-,

Work rabo
gross work output -»i.i

.u eycle cAWieney, a
Ci-1
since
The practical ioterpretabou of the ideal cycle will not be described in detail
here and the reader la advised to coosull the tpeelalist literature for the
mechanical arraDgeneDU employed and the petformanoe issesunenls (we
refs U and 5J), Figure $-l9(b) gives i simpUfM represemaUon of the engitK
and shows the necessity for two pistons, a working piston and a displaciog piston,
which in fact work in dsBateot parts of ibe saiiK cylinder and not as represented
It is accessary to the ideal cyck for the pistons to move disconlinuousiy and
this it only approaimated to by the meebanisms employed. Tbe rcaull is that
the processes ^ the ideal cyde are nos achieved sod there is a considerable
'rounding off of the ideal p-r diagram as the healing and cooling processes
merge to depart considerably from the constant volume beabng concept.

164
 Pcobisms

*nic allractioDS of (he Slirliag engine are tha( il can uiilize any form ofheat
from conventional or indigenous fuel solar or nuclear sources, provided Ihe
lemperaiurc created is high enough. The engines are quiet, tvith an efficiency
equal to or belter than the best internal combustion cngiDCs asid with little
vibration due to Ihe nature of the drive needed to give the dilTereniial movements
between the wori:ing and displacing pistons. The possible range of application
of the Stirling engine is wide and includes marine use, electricity generation for
peak loads and as a stand-by unit, automotive purposes, particularly in
comparison with (he diesel engine, and for situations when unconventional fuels
or heal sources can. or must, be used. The most important applicaiinns up to
now have been as an air engine and as a reCngeralot; with the Stirling cycle
reversed, it is capable of rcachlog the low temperatures of the cryogenic regions.
The Ericsson cycle is similar to the Stirling cycle except that the two
isothermals are connected by constant pressure processes, as shown in Fig S.I6.

f'lg. S.U Ericsson

cycle on a p a* diagram

Problems

S.1 Whal il Uk higbnt cyek effioeocy po&sible foe » heal enfine opentin; between SOO
and 15*C?
(73.2%)

Two Kvenibte heal engine operate id teriea beiween a lource at 527*C and a link at
17 *C If the eagiiMa have equal cffidenoca and ibe fim rejeeu 4flOU lo (he second,
calcutaie'
(0 (he tenpeniure at which heat a supplied lo ibe second enfine;
tii) ihc heal lahcn from ihe source:
Imi (he work done b; each en(me.
AMume that each en|ine operatet on (he Camoi c>tte.
<2)8.7‘C: 664.4 kl; 364.4 k^: U)

BJ I n a Camol cycle opemuag between )07 and 17 *C the cnaxini uai ud reaimun preuuref
are 63.4 bar and 1.04 har. Cakulaie the c)ck efficiency and ihe work ratio. Aiiume
air to be the woikiag fluid.
(50%;0.286i

S.4 A d<Med<)Cle gas turbine unit operating with maumum and minimum lemperalurei
of 760 end 20*C ha* a prtMure ratio of 7/L Calculate (he ideal eycic efficieticy and
(he work ratio.
(417%;0.S05)

165
Thft HMt Ei>9ln« CyeU

M to to tit suBdaxd Oii« cyde the mtsinun tad ounimuin temperiturts are 1400 and
15 *C The heal iuppiM per kUofram ol air is 800 U. Calculate ihe compression rado
askd (be cyde eAcieocy. Calculate abo ihe ratio of maximum to rainimum prcsauKi
in the c)de.
(S.27yi;48.5%:5a6S/U

fi.l A fbur*<>Ko(kf petrol eofiBe baa a swept volume of 2000 cm and the eJea ranee vo! ume
in each cylinder is 60 em*. Cakulaie (be air atandard cycle efficiency, lithe int roduetion
eoadiucmi are I baraod 24'C and the loaxinum e>de tempeniure ii 1400 'C. calculate
(he mean effective pressure baasd on (he air itssdard cycle.
159.1%: 5 28 bar)

1.7 Calculate the cyde efficiency and (Dean effective preiture of an air standard diesel
cyde with a eomprcasioo ratio of 15/i. and maximum and minimum cyde lempcmturei
of I6S0*C and 15'C respectrvdy. The maximum cycle pressure is 45 bar.
159.1%: 8.58 bar)

SJ In a diiaJ<oatlHisiiofi cyde titf maximum tempeniure is 2000‘C and ihe maximum

pressure is 70 bar. Calculate (be cyek efBoency aiul the mean effective preasure when
thepreaaureand icmpeniareat thesuri ofeonpressionare I bar and I7*C respevilvely.
The eompressioD ratio is 18/1.
(63.6%: 10.46 ban

dJ Ao ail stjodard dual^oabunioa cycle has a mean effective pressure of 10 bar. The
nuaiaim picsiore aad terapenture aie I baraod 17 'C rcepeciivdy.and the compression
ratio is 16/1. Calcidatc (be maximum cycle lempcraluie when the cyde efficiency is
60%. Tbe rnfltiffmm Cyde prcBuie is 60 bar,
(C59 C)

References

5.1 xoGtsa o F c and mavhew v a 1992 Eiv>arermc Thermcdynumics. Wofk and

Htat Tbonifrr. 4ih edn Longman
54 wALKEt o 1980 Sdrfbv Cnphvs Oxford Univ. Press
5J 1 Mech £ Coafervnee 1982 TrMifip £apiws - Progreu Twards Rtaliiy MEP

156
 Mixtures

A purs isbstAOC* ii dsAiwd ss a lubstaacs hev^ a conutoc apd uBifonn

ebsBical cpaiposiliott. tad itaa ddmnwo cia bs satsaded le uidude a
liomopeaeow abituic ef «uo »bea ibere k McfaenioJ reanioo ukinf pUes.
Tbs ihsrtsod/Beink pcepertia of a nslure of fuss eaa be dslsnniBsd in ths
siBs wmy as for a ufk faa Ths ohmi eeamofl txtnpk of Uui is dry air,
wbkk k a auitare of oir^'iSQ. oiiro|en. a amaU percenia|s of trfon. aod traes*
of olber Tbs properties of air have been dstamioed aad it ii consxlsisd
as a Botk nh«»«iw
Tbs Boiares to be eoftfidered ia llw duplar are ibose composed of pcrfeci
gasea, aad psrfoet paaas aad vipourv Tbs preppTia of such imxtum are
iaponani io eombostioo ealeulaciotta Air aad water vapour mutuics are
eoftsdered laisr in the cbaplsr wicb refereass lo soifaca condsassTv bui for
BMisi atAOHthenc air ebsre is a speoai ooeieedaiure and (his k eaiuidered m
Chtpeer Id oa psyduoaietry and ak^oodiCMoiii^

1.1 DkItMi'A law and tha Okbba-Dalton law

CoTHidst a dosed ytmf* uf *oIvbis I'll lempstalure T. udikh eootalM a mature

of psrfsel lasss ai a known pressore. U some of the nialBte mcs removed, than
lbs prsesurt would be Ism (ban iba nksa] vaJua. If tbs gaa temoved were the
foil amouai of oos of ibs eoaatrtucocs ihsa ihs radueuoa in pressure would bs
equal 10 (be cooinbuboo of that eoaiuiusot lo tbs ioHitI loial pressure, bach
CMMituenc coAGribuia (o tbs tocol pressure by an amount which n known as
tbs pmitd prrsare of (he eoestHiiaat Ths nfobooship hstwesn ibs panul
prsasvM of tba eeosekueots k eipresssd by Dtlloa'i law, as follows:

Ths prsanrr tf a mlxnrr fuare k ro rbr porifof prsraurr

ikt eoAKftMsnu.
TlisperrWpreaoer absorb reiviiuMi a ikat frrstvrevhuh rfopai would
tx£n If U omipM ofoos tkor nfosw ompM ky tbs iWxrurs m jbs rams
(ewprvarvs.
MiKturM

Fit. (.1 Ou A mixiot

with 084 B

Cm a Cm b UUlure of A B
Mom • M« Mom • >■» Mom « m • + mi

This is expreised diAfrafflmaticaUy m Fig. 6.1. The tases A and B> origiOAlly
occupying volume F at lempenture T am mixed in ibe third vessel which is
of (he same volume and is ai the same (emperaiure.
By (be conservation of mass

m® + flij (6.1)
By Dalton's law

P - P* '•' Pa ii2)

Dalton’s law is based on experiment and is found to be obeyed more accurately

by gas mixtures at low pressures. As shown in Fig. 6.1 each cooslitueot occupies
(be whole vessel The exampie given in Fig. 6.1 and the reiatioDships in equations
(6.1) and (6.2) refer to a mixture (wo gases, but the law can be extended to
any number of gases.

Le. + + +^ ^ ^
where mi is (he mass o( a consutuenl.

Tahlo^.l Analyses Of
air Aftxlym MoUr mass
Oioakal
CoulinMnc lyiDtxri By volumeiH) By man (H) (kg/kmoll

Oiygen O, 2095 2}.14 31.999

Nitrogen N, 78.09 755} 28.013
Argon Ar OM 1.28
Cnrbcii dioude CO. 00} 005 44.010

Similarly

P - P. + P» + Pc + eic. ot p«j;p, (6.4)

where p, is (he partial pressure of a cooslitueot
Air is the moil common mislure and sioce it will be referred to frequently,
its composition b as Table 6.1. The mean molar mass of air b
26.96 kg,'kmoL and (be spedbc gas coDstaDi R b 0.2871 kJ/kg K. For
approximate calculalions (be air b said to be composed of oxygen and
'atmospheric nitrogen'(see Table 6.2). Note: volumetric analysis b the analysb
by volume; gravimetric analysis is (be analysis by mass.

16«
 <•1 0«ltoA's lew ftnd ttM Gibb»*0«lton law

Table 6d Approsinuie
aaiilyeee for air Aoalyaia MoUr miu

Coftstituokt By vdume(K) By ana (S) (kg/kawl)

Oxygen 210 233 32.0

Niuofca 790 767 260

Example 6.1 A vessel of volume 0.4 contaios 04$ kg of carbon monoxide and
I kg of air, ai l$*C. CaJculale Ibe partial pressure of each coiutiluenl and
ibe tola] prestvee in ibe vessel TTk graviinetric analnis of air is to be taken
as 23.3% oxygen and 107% nitrogen. Take tbe molar masses of carbon
iDoooxide, oxygen and nitrogen at 26,32 and 26 kg/kmoL

23J
SaluUon Maxi of oxygen present ra.— x 1 > 0233 kg

Mass of oHrogeo present •• x 1 - 0767 kg

From equation (2.9)

and Oom equation (2.6)

pV-mRT

„ mkT
Hence p- —

or for a cocudiuent

i,itr
ft'
<«,F
The volume K is 04 m’and tbe temperature Tis(l$ 4- 273)- 286 K. Therefore
we have for Oj

^,-««4«l^.43.»kN/«’
32x04

43.59 X 10’
- 04359 bar
10’
0767 X 6.314$ x 286
fbrN, pM, - 16X99 kN/m’
28x04
163.99 X 10’
1.6399 bar
10’

169
MMurM

ft4i » gJMS X MR
for CO fco 9U1 kN/n
2S X a4

9UI X 10’
aa9621bu
10*

The (oul preuure in (be veael it (iven by equtiion (6.4)

r• . 0436 + 1.640 + 0.962 - 3.036 btr

i«. Preuure in vcatei - 3.036 bir

Dallon't law wat cefortnulaied by Gibbi lo indude a lecond uaiemeni on

the properties of Riialuiei. The comMned stalemeot it known as the
Gibbt -Dahon taw. tod is at foUowt:

The Mteninfenerpy. enthalpy, and enrespy. o<a poteout Mixture ore retpectieely
epual 10 the turns of the iittemoi enerpics, eruhaiptes, and eraroptet, of the
conitiiumts.
Each conAituent hot that intemoi enerpy, eruhetpy, and entropy, which it
wouU hme If it occupied ahne that solume occupM by ihe mixture at the
lemperaaire of the mixtve.

Thb siaienteni leads to the equations

fflu B *1. + etc or mu^^m^Ut (6.5)

and mh s 'S 0%% ■!* etc. or mbK^offh^ (6.6)

and ms = m«S;t + in,s« + etc or ins = £R,s, (6.7)

6.2 VolumMrie WMlytlt of a gam mlxtura

The analysis of a mixture of poses is ofleo quoted by volume as this is the most
convenient for practical deieminaiioat.
Consider a volunse P of a paseous mixture at a temperature T, consistinp of
three constituents A, B, and C at in Fig. 6.2(a). Let et^ of the constituenu be
compressed to a preuure p equal lo Ihe tola] preuure of Ihe mixture, and let
the temperature remain constant. The partial volumes then occupied by the
constituenu will be and t^. From equaiioa (2.6) pF • mPT) thcctlore,
referring to Fig. 62(a)

Fig 6J lllusiraiion of
partial volume F. F. F,
f F P
■4 *ie

IS) (hi

170
 0.3 Tht molar mMf and ip»ciflc gn constant

and reTerrins lo Fig. 6.2(b)

Equaling the laro values for nia. have

R.r'/i.T

i<- P*F-,Kv or Kt-CiF

P
In general (beiafore,

K-jF (6.8)

ia:
P P

Now from equation (6.4), p « ^Pt. iherefore

(6,9)

Therefore the volume of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the volumes
of the ifldividual coastiiuents when each ezisu alooe at the pressure and
tRoperature of the mixture. This is the statement of another empirical law. the
law of partial volumes (sometimes called Amagat's law or Leduc's law).
The amount of substance b defined in section 2.3 and is given by
equation (Z7) as n » n/iiL By Avogadro’s bw, the amount of substance of any
gas is proportional lo Ihc volume of the gas at a given pressure and temperature.
Referring to Fig. 62{i\ the volume F contains an amount of substance n of
the mixture at p and T (n Fig. 6J<b). the gas A occupies a volume at p end
T, eod this volume contains an amount of substance Similarly there are
amounu of substance ag of gas B in volume F,. and of gas C in volume Vq.
Now from equation (6.9K

F Of F* + F, + Fc» F

Therefore the total amount of substance in the vessel must equal the sum of
the amounts of substance of the individual constituents,

i.e. + + or (^>1^)

6.3 The molftr maga and apaeific gaa constant

For any gas id a gas miiture occupying a total volume of F at a temperature

T. from equation (IS) pF s and the definition of partial pressure, we have
p,y»n,kT (6.11)

171
MiKturM

therefore

Kp.n-Ziii.^r)
it-

From eqiulioa (6.4). p • iMnce,

py-RT^n,
Abo from equiioii (610), ii • ^ii,, therefore

pV-nUT
The mixture therefore acts as a perfect pas. and this is (he characleiiitic equaliOD
for (be mixture. A molar oiass is defioed b> the equatioo, 41 - m/n. where m b
the mass of (be muiurc aod a b the amount ol subslance of the mixture.
Similarly, a specific pas constant is defined by the equation R * H/A. It can
be assumed (hat a mixture of perfect pases obeys ail the perfect gas laws
To find the specific gas constanl for the mixture in terms of the spedftc gas
constants of the constituents, consider equation (2.6) both for (be mixture and
for a coDsthueot,

Lc. pyssmRT and p,Vsai,lt,T

Then Ip,K = £m,i{,T
thertfore

ylP^-T'Zm.R,
Now from equatioo (64)> p « ^Pi. therefore
or pV m mRT m T}im,R,

or «= (6.12)

where mi/m it ibe oua tractiofi of a eonMitueoL

Exampit 6.2 The graviotetric anaiysit of air b 23.14% oiygen, 3S.S3% uirogen. 1.28%
argon. 0.05% carboo dioiide. CaicuUte ibe tpecific gat eontunt for air and
the molar matt. Take ibe molar mattes from Table 6.1 on p. 148.

Solt/Oon From equaiioa (2.9)» A •• R/iK therefore

178
 <.3 motor moot ond tpoeifie qm conatant

Then using equalion |6|}), R s £(m,/in)R,. we have

R«(0J)I4 x 0.259S|4^(a7SS3 « 0.2968)4)0.0128 x 0.3081)

+ (0.0005 « 0.1889)-0.2871 U/kgK

i.e. SpedBc gas constant for air - 0.2871 kl/kg K

From equatioD (Z9), ik - A/R, therefore.

A• - 28.960 kf/kmol

i.a Molar mass of air - 28.96 kg/kmol

When the approaimate analysis for air is used (i4. 23.354 Oj and 76.7% N]
by massk il is usual practice to take R as 0.287 kJ/kg K and A as 29 kg/kmol.

From equation (6.11). p^F — n,AT and combining this with equation (2.6)
applied to the miatiue (Le. pF — nfiTX we have

pF “nSr

16.13)
P

This can be combined with equation (6.8). to give

Pi "i F,
(6.14)
P " F

Tbis is an important result which means that the molar analysis is identical
with the volumetric analysis, and both are equal to the ratio of the partial
pressure to the total pressure.
Another method of determining the molar mass is as follows. Applying the
characteristic equation. (Z6). to each conslitiieot and to the miiturt we have
m, • P|F/R,T: and m - pV/KT.
From equation (6.3). m - ^nii. therefore
pF__ftF
or
RT ^R,r R ^R,
Using equation (Z9X R — A/m, and substituting we have

or f^-ZPA

La. (6.IS)
r
Abo uafig equation (6.14)

17S
MlnturM

lOd (6.17)
Jl

Exampla 6.3 The gravinieinc andyas of air is 23.UK oaygen. 7S.53’4 niirogen. I.28Vi
argon, and 0.06% carbon dioxide. Calcutale (be analyni by volume and Ibe
partial pretivre o( each connilueol when (he total pccuure is I bar.

Solution From equalioo (6.14) (be analysis by volume, V,/V, it (be same as (he
fraction ii,/n. Also from equation (2.7), it, m (berefore considering I kg
of mixture we have the tabular solution shown in Table 6.3.

Tabk 63 Solution for

bxample 6.3 ■1. A, n, - M|/A| A/n-SJ/i'
CoiKtilueot (kg) (If/kflMi) 1%)

1X2314 31.999 a00723 100 - 2095

003462
Niirogen 07563 21013 002696 .00-7809
003452
Argon 00128 39.948 000032 ''«*”xl00- 093
0.03452
Cwbon
dioude 00006 44010 OOOODI •''"“‘xlOO- 003
Oi»4S2

"-S'** -003452

FrDmequation(6.l4),Pi/p — V,/F — iq/ii, (berefore, p, — (n,/n|p. hence using

(he volume fractions from Tabk &3,

for Oj Fo, - 0-^^ X I - 0^5 b"

for N] Pn, - 0.7g09 x I - 0.7S09 bar

for Ar Ps. • 00093 x I > 00093 bar

for CO, Pco, - 00003 x I - 00003 bar

Exampla 6.4 A mixture of I kmol CO, and 3.Skroot of air is contained in a vessel at
I bar and I6*C, The volumetnc analysis of air can be taken as 21% oxygen
and 79% nitrogen. Calculate lor tbe mixture:

(i) the masses of CO,. O,. and N,. and Ibe total mass;
|ii) the percentage carbon content by mass;
(iii) the molar mass and Ibe specific gas constant for the mixture;
(iv) the specific volume of the mixture.
Take the molar masses of carbon, oxygen aixi oitrogen as 12kg/kmol,
32 kg j kmol and 28 kg/kmol respectively.

174
 $:3 Th*molarnuMAnd•pfteKleOMconmnt

Solution (I) Fromequauoo (6.M), ha\«

<10,-021 X M • 0.73$ kmol

and Xm, - 079 x 3J • 27«$ kmol

Frocn cquilioo (Z7), m, - n,i^t, Iherefore

<11(0, > I K 44 - 44 kf

<tio,-a73$x 32 - 23J$k(
and aiN, - 176$ x 28 - 77$ kg

Tou)m4aa,iii - no, 4 rn, 4<iico,

- 23$$ 4 77$ 4 44 • 14$.0$ kg
(ii) The molar mass of carbon B 12 kg/kmol. therefore there are 12 kg of
arboo present in I kmol of carbon dioxide.

U. Percentage carbon in mixture — ^ — 817% by mau

I4$.0$

(iii) Fran equabon (&I0). a - 21"<- '

a - nco, 4 Ho, 4 tifj, - I 4 0.735 4 176$ - 4.3 tanol
Then using equation C6.I7),

lae have

i.c, Molar mass of mialure - 312kg/knioI

From equation (19k R - A/iA, we have

S-^l^-OlSSlU/kgK

Le, Spedfk gas consiaoi for the mixture - 0.2S8I kJ/kg K

(Iv) From equation (2$k pe — RT, therefore

RT 02$81 X 288 x 10*
■ •0.743$ra*/k8
1 X 10*

where r- 1$ 4 273 - 288 K.

Le. specific volume of the mixture at I bar and l$*C is 0,743$ m*/kg.

175
MbiturM

Example 6,6 A mulun of Hg and Oj is to be made w ihai the ratio of Hg lo Og is

2 lo I by v^iime. Calculate (he mass (tf Og required and the volume of the
container, per kilotram of Hg. if the pressure and temperature are I bar and
IS’C respectively. Take the molar masses of hydrogen and oxygen as
2 kg/kmol and 32 kg/kmoL

Solution Let the mass ofOg per kilogram of Hg be x

From equation (2.7), a, • nii/iiii, therefore

Hh, - ^ - 0.5 kmol and "o, ~ ^ kmol

From equation (6.14). V,IV ng/Me therefore

and • 2 (given)
ib. "0,
0.5 32x0.5
LC. •2 ibcTciore x ■ —^J kg

i.e. Mau of oxygea per kilogivn of hydrogen « $ kg

The (oul amount of tubstance in Ihe veasel per kilogram of H, U

" “ tNi. + “o. “ 0l5 + ^ = as + i « a5 + 0.25 = ft75 kmol

Then front equation (18),

py^nKT
therefore
a75 X SJ145 X 2t8 X 10’
- 17.96 m^
■ 1 X 10»

Example 6.6 A vessel contains a gaseous mixture of composition by volume, SOH Hg

and 20H CO. It is desired that ibe misiure should be made in the proportion
505i Hg and 50% CO by ren»ving some of the mixture and adding some
CO. Cakulaie per kilomok of mixtiuc (be mass of mixture to be remeved.
and the mass of CO to be added. The pressure and temperature in the vessel
remain cotuttnt during the procedure.
Take Ibe molar mass of hydrogen and carbon monoxide at 2 kg/kmol
and 28 kg/kmol.
Solution Since the pressure aixl temperature remain constant, then the amount of
subiunce in (he vessel remeins the same throughout. Therefore Ihe amount of
subilanoe of misturc removed is equal tothe amount of subslaiicc ofCO added.

Let X kg of mixture be removed and y kg of CO be added.

For (he mialure. from equation (6.16)
u
fh s T —A

176
 •.4 Spwifie hMt capaeitin of« mbrtura

(benfore,

m - (08 X 2) + <0^ X 28) • U kg/kiBoI_'

ThcD usiof equation {2-1), n ■ m/A, we have

amount o( aubilanca o( mixture removed • ^ kmol

amount of xubsiance ol CO added > ^ kmoi

2d

and x/U - ;/28

From equation (6.14), V,/Vmii,/n. therefore

amountofuifcaUDOeafHjialbemuluiereinoved ivOS x ^a|lmoI

and amount ofsubslance ofHi iniliany >0.8 X I wOS kmol

Hence amount of si^Unce of H] remaining in vestel = ^0.8 - ^^kmol

But I kmol of the new niUture is S0% H) and SOS CO. therefore

0,8 - i - OJ
9

ie. x = (0J-a5)x9 = 17kg

ie. Mass of mixture removed « Z7 kg

Ako sinoc x/7J a y/28. therefore
28 28 x27

ie. Mass of CO added - lOJ kg

6.4 Specific heat capechiee of a gaa mixture

It was shown in section 61 that as a contequcnce of the Oibbs-Dallon law

the internal energy ofa mixture of gasea is given by equation (65), mu > £m,U|.
Abofora perfect gas from equation (214). M wc.THence substituting we have

mr.T-j;«qc„T

therefore

'"C.«L".Cx

or «. = £—«•, (618)
M

177
MiXtUfM

Siniltrly from e^uiion <6.6), mA - tad from equation (118), ^ ■ o^T;

therefore

"t.T’-I-.e.J’
ihnefoR

•*» -

or (6.19)
n

From cquadont (6.lt) tnd (6.19)

Utini equidoD (2.17X Ibetefoic

AIM from equotioo (6.12). 8 - Z~^i- ihricfore for the mixture

«»-«. = *
The equatioiu(2J0). (221), Kiid{2.22). can be applied to a mixture of guex.

It ibould be noted (bat r otnel be detemined from equation 120; there is

no weitbted mean expeeasioa as there is for 8. c„ and c,.

Exampio fl.7 The gas in an engroe cylinder has a volumetric analysis of 12% CO,. 11.5%
Oi. and 765% N,. The temperature at the beginning of expansion is 1000°C
and the gas mixture expands reversibly through a volume ratio of 7 to 1.
according to a law pc'” — coastani Calculate the work done and the heat
flow per unit mass of gas. The values of c, for the constituenls averaged over
the temperature ate as follows: e, hr CO, • 1271 U/kgK: e, for
O, • 1.110 kJ/kg K: <, for N, • 1.196 kJ/kg K.

Solution From equation (27) m, • therefore a contersion from volume fraction to

mau fraclion is as given in Table 66 Then using equation (619) and the mass
fractions from Table 64

therefore
c, •iai74x 1.271)+ (6121 x t.llO) + (0.705 x 1.196)
■ l.l99kJ/kgK

17S
 8,4 Spooilie boat eapocKlM ef • 0m nrixtufo

Ttlik Solution for

Example i.? «( m, *f ■ *»*(
CoAiiituent Ikfluri) (kgikmsl) (kg) m,/m

Carbon dioxide ai20 44 S.2g 528/30.56 >0174

Oxygto aii} U 3.6g 3.68/30.36 - 0.121
Niiroien 0.765 2$ 71.40 21.40/30.36-0705
«»56

Froen equatiOD (6.12). R • tod from oqutiioo (Z9), R, ■ P/A,,

therefore

- 0.274 U/k| K

Then from equation (Z17), c, — c, - K. we have

c, - I 199 - 0274 - 0925 kj/kg K

The work done per kg of gas can be obtained from equation (5J0)

n— I

T] can be (bund usog equaiioo (2-2S)

where r, - 1000 + 272 - 127} K. Therefore

in. Work done the gas fflUture w ^5}7.5 kJ/kg

Abo from equaiioo (216), for unit mass. u. -u, - e,(T] - T,), therefore

u,-u,m 0925(7826 - 127}) - -45}.6 U/kg

Fitially, from the non-flow energy cquaiion (MX Q -t- Ik - (u, - U|X
in. Q- S37.S > -45}.6 therefore 0 - 8}.9 kJ/kg

in. Heal supplied • 8}.9kJ/kg

Ekaenpl^ 6.8 Calculate for Ibe data of Example 67 the change of entropy per kilogram
of mixture.

179
MtKturt*

Fi|. CJ T-s dia^ruD

for Example

Solution Refemnf to Fif. 6J, lbs chute of eotrop]' between lUle I ud lUUe 2 can be
found by imitining Ibe procea replaced by two other proceises. I to A and
A to 2. Thii method i( detciibed In lection 4.4.
For botherinal procese 1 to A. from equatioD (4.12)

I..,-a,
- a, - Rln^ji^.
R >t to 7 - a$33 U/kg K

For the• conslui volume (prooa A to 2

T - '■ ““(^) - - “"(S)

Le. s.4-ai = a4S0U/kgK

Then by subtractiotu
I, - a, - 0533 - 0450 - 0083 U/kg K

It Is often convenieol to use amount of subctaoce in problems on matures

and to define heal eapadliei expressed in terms of Ibe amount of substance. These
are known as eiofor heat copociises. ud are deooted by Z, ud 3,, Molar heat
etpadiies are defined as follows:

3,-Ac, and 3,-Ac, (6.20)

From equation (2.17), e^ — c, * ft. Iberefore

3, - 3. > Ac, - Ac, > AR

Alto from equaltoo (2.9), AR • H, hence

3,-3.-« (6.21)
From equation (115)
Vmme,T

Also from equation (2.7), m - nA. and from equation (6.20), Ac, — 3..
therefore,

i;-ii3,T (622)

180
 •-4 Spvctfie hwt oipaektin of •

SimOarly

H-nl,T (6.23)

By the Gibbs-Dalton law,

V-^V, and
therefore

<T-j;n.9.,T and "9,T-j:v,,T

la (6.24)

and (6.25)
H

Eaampla 0,9 A producer gas has (be following volumeiric analyiii: 29% CO. 12% H],
3% CH.. 4% CO,. S2% N,. CUeuUle the values oT 1.. c,. aod t, for
(be ntUniie. The values of Idr (be conslitueols are as follows:
ter CO. I, - 29,27 U/kmol K; for H,. I, - 29,89 U/kmol K; ter CH<,
?,-3S,80kJ/kniolK; for CO„ 9, = 3722 U/kiDol K; for N,, 9,=
29.l4kJ/lmKriK.
The molar masses may be lakeo as foDows: for H„ 2 kg/knol; for CH..
16kg/kmol: for CO],44kg/kmol: hr N,. 28kg/kmoL

Solution From equation (623),

Tbercfore.

I, . (029 X 29271 + (0.12 x 23,89) 4- (a03 x 33,80)

+ <a04 X 3722) 4- <a32 x 29.14)

Le. c, - 29.6707 kJ/kmol K

From equalioo (6.21).

9,-9.-/!
therefoR
9. - 9, - it - 29A707 - 8.3143 • 21.3362 kJ/kmol K

ie. 9.-2l.3362kJ/kiD^K
The molar mass can be found from equation (6.17). i.e.

(a29 x 28)4-(O.I2x 2)4-<0.03 x 16) 4-(0.04 x 44)

4 |0J2 X 28)

781
MbcturM

TftMe
65 Propertio of
some commoa gues
at 300K

r. c. i. i. A R

Ou <U/kgKl 7 lU.’kmolKl (k| kmoli (kJ/k|K)

Diatomic
Csibon monoude ICO) IMIO ai442 IJW 29.151 30645 38filO 02968
HydiogenlKil I4.3Z30 laini 1404 2<.t15 20561 2016 4.1243
Nitrogen IN]) 1.0400 0.7432 IJ9» 29.I3S 20819 28.0)3 02968
Osygen (0,| a9l82 06514 IJ»5 29JS2 21.068 31.999 02598
Mouiotnic
Argon (Arl 0.S203 03122 1.666 20.7S6 12412 39.950 0.2081
Helium (He) IIMO 3.1150 1.666 20166 12413 4X03 20111
TrUtomic
Carbon dioaide (CO^) awsi 06568 lJU 3U19 28.906 44X)10 0.1889
SuJpbur dioxide (SOj) a644B 05]5I> 1252 41.306 32991 64060 0.1298
Hydrowboos
Ethane (C,H.) 1.766B lv4903 1.186 53.128 44.BI3 3a07D 02769
Methane (CK,) U3I« 1.1132 1203 35.195 21480 16.040 0.5184
Propaoe (C]Ha) 1.6919 l.5Ca9 1.126 74578 66263 44X190 0.1886

Le. lit * 25.16 kg/koM^

TkoQ from equation (6J0)

29.6707
1.1793 U/kgK
25.16
ukI

Values of 7. €^, Cf, fg, rik, aad X at 300 K for some of the more common
CwA Cw B gases are shown in Tal)le 65.
•a 1
•H
"a !

S Adi«b«tlc mixing of porfect gasoo

Consider iwo gases A and B separated from each other in a dosed vessel by a
thin diaphragm, as shovm in Fig. 6.4(a^ If the diaphragm is punctured or
Qm nutiure
p.r removed, then the gases mis as in Rg M(b). sod each then occupies the total
volume, behaving as if the other gas were not preseot. This process is cquivsknt
na
to a free espansion of each gas. as>d is irrcveisiUa The process can be simplified
• - "A ♦
by tbe assumption that it is adiabatic; this means that the vessel is peifectly
lb) thermally insulated and Iberefoie there will be an increase in entropy of the
Ffg.M Mningoftwo system. In section 4.5 it is shown that there is slways en increase in entropy
gases ioitdUy separate of a thermally isolated system which undergoes an irreversible process.

182
 •.( Adlabfttte mixing of poi loct gnot

Ii » shown 10 tectiofi 3.S that io o free explosion process (he miemaj

energy isitialJy is c^ual lo (be ioter&al energy finally. In this case, from
equation (6.22)

•Dd y:-(»A2..+

Entending thii remit to loy nunber of gues.

MKi

Then U,-W,
Le.

le. (6J6)
I".*.

Exampla 6.10 A vessel of 1J nt’ capadt)' contains oiytfa at 7 bar and 40°C. The vesul
is coDiKcied to acotbn «e^ of 3 at' capaciijr coniaiaing carboo moaoxide
at I bar and IS*C. A connecting v^ve is opened and the gases nix
adiabalically. Calculate:
fi) the (ioal temperature and pressure ^ the miiture;
(ill the change in entropy erf the system.

For oxygen, d, = JIOTU/knxd K; for carbon tnonoxidc. I, = 20.86 kJ/

kmol K.

Solution <i) From equation (2i|

Therefore
7 V in’ all
. _—i—1:1^-!:i__0.«US whereTo -40 + 273 - 3I3K
8.3145 « 313 X 10> °*

and

Kf.--' ** '*^* '^ ^—s-0.1253 where Tco - 15 + 273 - 288 K

” 8.3145 X 288 X 10’ “

Before mixing
V, m ^(11,2,,T;) • (04035 X 21.07 x 313) * (01253 x 2086 x 288)

Le. (/,-3413.8 U

Afier mixing

V, - Tl("Ai) • rl(0A03S X 21.07) + (0.1253 x 20.86)|

Le. (/jwll.118x7

183
Mlxtum

For adiabatic wii»ing, (/j, tberdbre

34134
MI3J-II.US X T tbeteforer 307 K
11.IIS “
TctDpcfilure of mixture 307-273 - 34-C

From cqutiioD (IS).

pm —

Therefore

(04035 + 0.1233} X 13143 X 307 X 10>

--(TsTIoixTo'*-
U. PreauR aflee mixini a 3 bur
(b) The chuitie of entropy of the lyitem is equal to the eban^e of entropy
of the oxygen plus the change of entropy of the caihon monoxide; thisfoUowi
troiD the Cibbe-Dalion law.
Referring to Fll 6.5, the dtange of entropy of the oxygen can be caktilaled
by repiacing the process nndergone by the oxygen by the two processes I
to A and A to 1

Fig. 63 T-s diagram

for oxygen for
Esample 610

For an isothermal proceulroiD 1 to A from equation (613), we have

s»-s.-Ab(.^) or S*-S,-»iRln(^)

La - 0.4035 x UI43 x j bf/K

At constant voliDae from A to 2,

rA-s,-c.j^ Y-c,ln^i) or S,-S,-mc.lo^^^

S* - S, - - 0-W33 >• il-W » ‘“(^) “ ®

1S4
 •.S Adi«bliti« mixing of porfoot gi

ibefdbrt

Si - S| - 1686 - ai68 • 3.S18 U/K

Referriog lo Fit* ^ cfauige of entropy of the carbon monoxide can be
found in a tinilar way to the above.
it. S|-S|«(Sg-S,) + (S,-S,)

Flf. M r-i diefram

for ctrboo (BOfioxide for
Example dlO

therefore

S,-S. = r>Rln^^^4«.tn(5)

> |ai2S3 X S.3U X '°(y)}

+ |o.l253 K 2a«6 X

tberefore

S,-5,-0.590 U/K

Hncc the chaage o( entropy of the whole rysien ij given by

(S, - Sih,,. - (S, - S,lo. + (5, - S,)co

i.e. Change of entropy of tyvtein - 3.518 + 0.590 - 4.106 U/K

Another Ibnn of miung is that which occurs when streams of fluid meet
to form a common stream in steady flow. This is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 4.7. The sicady-Row energy equation can be applied to the mising seciion.
and changes in kinetic and poletnial energy are usually negligible.
Le. 4 4^41^ — 4

For adiabatic flow Q ~ 0. and also K’ - 0 in this case, therefore

185
Mlvtur**

Fl^6,7 MUifi<ofn»o
fluid itmjiu

From ^uiioQ (lUX k • beoec

For any number of gates this becomes

(627)
Z(V«)
Also, since from equation (62D), 2,- ific^.andm » n/n from equation (27),
then

■if,, me.

Hence, (6.M)
H"iM
Equation (627) or |62g) repecsenu one condition which must be ulisfied
in an adiabatic mixing process of peifect gases in steady flow. In a particular
probkin some other inConnaiion must be known (eg the final pressure or
spedfic volume) before a complete solution is possible. To find the change of
entropy in such a process the preceduie it as described above for adiabatic
mixing by a free expansion. The entrcqiy change of each gas it found and the
results added logeiber.

6.6 Gaa and vapour mixturaa

Considera vessel of fixed volume which is maintained ataconiitnt temperatura

as shown in Fig 68(a). The vessel it evacuated end the ebtolute pressure it
therefore zero. In Fig 68|b) a small quantity of water it introduce into the
vessel snd it evaporates to occupy the whole volume. For a small quantity of
water introduced, the pressure in the vessel will be less than the saturation
pressure conesponding to the temperature of the vessel At this condition of
pressure end temperature the vessel wiQ be occuped by superheated vapour.

186
 f,6 Gt* Aod vtp«ur mlBiurtt

Fif.6.S Liquid
Introduced into en
evacuated vessel
K)

tal <bl le)

A> more weier is iniroduccd ihe pressure Increeses end ihe water conlinues to
evaporaie until stub e condiiloo is reached that the volume cao hold no more
vapour. Any additional water introduced tnlo the vessel after this will not
evaporate but will exist as water, the condition beiop as in Fig. 6.8fc), which
shows the vapour in contact with its liquid. Per kilogram of water introduced,
the vessel can be thought of as containing either (1 — x) kg of water plus x kg
ofdry saturated vapour, or as containing I kg ofwet steam ofdryness fraction x.
During the entire process of evaporation (he temperature remains constant.
If the temperature is now raised by the addition of heat, then more vapour will
evaporate and the pressure in Ihe vessd will increase. Eventually the vessel will
contain a superheated vapour as before, but at a higher pressure and temperature.
The vessel in Tig 6.8 is considered to be Initially evacuated, but the water
would evaporate in exactly the same way if Ihe vessel contained a gas or a
mixture of gases. As slated in the Cibbs-Dallon law, each constituent behaves
as if it occupies the whole vessel at the temperature of the vessel. When a little
water is sprayed into a vessel conlaioing a gas mixture, then the vapour formed
will esert the saturation piessuie corresponding to the Icmperalure of the vessel,
and this is the partial pressure of the vapour to the mixture. (It must be
remembered that the vapour is only saturated when it is in contact with its liquid.)
When a mixture contains a saturated vapour, then the partial pressure of
Ihe vapour can be found from tables at the temperature of the mixture. This
assuma that a saturated vapour obeys the Cibbs-Dalton law; this is only a
good approximation at low values of the total pressure.

Exampio 8.11 (a) A vessel or0.3in’capacity contains air at 0.7 bar and 7$‘C The vessel is
maintained at this icmperalure as water is injected into it. Calculate the
mass of water lobe injected so that the vessel is just filled with saturated
vapour.
lb) If injection now continues until a total mast of 0.7 kg of water it
introduced, cakulaie the new total pressure in Ihe vessel.
|c) The vessel is now healed until all Ihe water in it just evaporaies. Calculate;

<i| the total pressure for this condition;

(ii) the heal to be supplied.

Solution la) The subscripts s.w.anda will be used forsieam,waler.and air respectively.
At 1S*C, the saiunlion pressute p,-0.385Sbar and t,-4.133 m','kg

187
MlRturM

Tbefttore

Mass of vapour occupying 0.3 n’ » s 0.0726 kg

4.133

i.c. Mass of water to be iBjecied • 0.0726 kg

(b) By Dalton's taw. equation (6.2), p > p, 4- p„

ix. Total pressure in vessel m 0.7 .f 0385$ • I.08SS bar

Note that (he dry vapour is assumed to act as a perfect gas, hence the vapour
and the air are assumed to occupy the same volume whik eachesens its partial
pressure.
Whenaiotal mass of 07 kg of water has been injected into the vessel it will
esisi partly as dry saturated vapour(say m,kg)and partly as water (say m, kg,
where ffl, * (07 — m,» in such proportions that the misture occupies the total
volume of 03 therefore
(m. X 4.133) + (07 - m.) < 0.001026 = 0.3

where 0.001026 m’.'kg is the specific volume of water.

i.e. m,(4.133 - 0.00l026)sO3-(a7 X 0.001026)

4.132 X JS1 = 02993 therefore m,*—«O0724kg

^ 4.132

Note that the volume of water is negligibly small compared to the volume of
the air-vapour misture

Air m. = a7-0O724 = a6276kg

• 1 awjm’
dry sal The volume occupied by the dry vapour - 0.0724 x 4.133 - 0.2993 m’. Hie
vessel may be assumed to contain air, dry saturated steam, and water, as shown
in Fig. 6 9.
^.WaurKi _ 00007 m'
Since T, • Tj. we can write
Fig. 6.9 Conditions in
vessel for part tb) of
Esample 6.i i therefore

p.,.a7x^.070,7ba,

Le. Total pressure » p. 4- p, • 0.7017 a. 0.385$ > 1.0872 bar

(c) (i) The water can be compkidy evaporated by raising the Icmperalure
to a value such that the total volume is occupied by saturated steam and air.
This condition it reached when the steam hat a specific volume c,. such that,
a7 X e, - 0.3.

03
0.4286m*'kg
" 0.7 "

IBS
 6.8 Gm ind vapour mlirturw

From tables the saturation pressure at r, - 0.4256 m’/kg is. by inlerpolaling.

^0.4623 - 0.42g6\
x|4.S-4.0) >4.33 bar
lo.4623 - 0.4139/

The air now occupies the volume of 03m‘ while eienisg iu penial pressure
p,, at the new temperature. The Dcn'(emperaiure is that saturation temperature
cotrespoading to the pressure of 4.3S bar.
From tables by interpolation at 4.3Sbar

t . 1435 a- — X 4J « 1465‘C iheTcfureT - 146.6 -l- 213 - 419.6 K

O.S

Then (ot the air

^ ^ therefore • 0.7 * -jjj- ■ 0.8439 bar

where T., » 75 273 - 348 K.

i.e. Total pressure in ve»cl « 4J5 •*’ 0J439 « 5.194 bar

4 ilk From the iM>n*flow energy equation

0 + W's U, -

in this case IV se o. therefore Q «(Uj — Then

t/, = * "ts**!,
ami i/w *

For a perfect gas. from equaiiofi (2.15), U « therefore

8“"..“.,+<".4.(11- I'll
Then taking u, and from tables, and subsliluling for

p.F a7xl0’x0.3
IB. ■ .0.2102 kg
R,T 0287 x 348x10'

we have

Q > (0.7 X 2556.8) - 10.0724 x 2415.3)

- (06276 X 313.5) + 02102 x 0.718(419.6 - 348)

i.e. Heal supplied - 17895-179.2- 1965 + 105 - 1424.6 k]

Example 5.12 The products of combustion of a fuel have a volutnelric analysis of

CO,S%.H,0 I5%.0, 5.5S.aiidN, 71.SH. If ihelotalpressuieis 1.4bar,
calculate the icmpemiuic to which the gas must be cooled at consutnl pressure
for condensation of the HjO just to commence.

169
MlKturM

Salution From equation (6-14)

Partial preasuta oTHjO • - < p sO.IS » 1.4 • 0.21 bar

a

The saturation lenperaiure conespooding to 0.21 bar It 61.15 *C, i.e. the gas
must be cooled to 61.15‘C (or condeosaiion or the HjO to coisimence.

6.7 Tha Bteam conclartaar

The condenser is an essential part of any steam power plant. The temperature
at which coitdensatlon occurs is in the order of 2$ to 40 'C (he corresponding
saturation pressures being 0.05166 and 0.07575 bar. The shell and tube type
condenser is a sessci in which this low pressure is maintained by a pump, and
the steam coruktises on the outside of tubes through which cold water is flowing.
This type is called a surface condenser. There will be some leakage of air into
the condenser, both through the glands and from air dissolved in the feedwater
which comes out of solution and is carried into the condenser by the steam.
This air impairs (he condenser peiformoncc since it reduces the heat transfer
from the steam to the cooling water.
The coitdenser contains a mixture of steam, air, and water. The air must be
pumped out of the condenser continually to mainuln the vacuum, and the air
which is pumped out carries with it some of the steam. This results in a Ictss
Of feedwater to the boiler. This loss has to be made up by (he addition of cold
water. Another eSeci of the presence of air is that the condensate is undercooled
(ie. cooled to a temperature below the saturation temperature), which means
that more heal has lo be supplied to the water in the boiler than if no
undercooling had occurred.
The pressure lo the condenser is approximately constant throughout and
steam and air enter the condenser in Axed proportions when steady conditions
prevail. As some of the steam h condensed the partial pressure of the remaining
sleam decreases, and hence the partial pressure of the air increases lo maintain
■he same total pressure. At redu^ partial pressures the steam has a saturation
(emperaiure which is below that of the incoming steam. Hence condensation
proceeds at progressively lower lemperaluics.
Some condensers are designed lo make up for the deficiencies of the simple
type. Two of these arc indicated in Fip 6.10(a) and 6101b). In Fig 6.10(a)
most of the condensation Is arried out on the main bank of lubes and the air
is drawn over another, smaller, bank which is shielded from the main bank and
is culled the air cookr. Here further condensation takes place al a lower
temperature with a subsequent saving in feedwater, and a smaller pump is
required for the condenser. In Fig 610(b) the air<ooling lubes are in the centre
of the condenser and the air is pumped away fiom this region. The incoming
steam passes all round the bank of tubes and some is drawn upwards lo (be
centre, lo doing so ir meets (he undcrcookd condensate which has been formed
and rebeaies it. hence reducing (he amount of undercooling.

190
 a.7 Th« itMin EOfldanMr

FI|.UO Tmi Steam ud ax Steam lad air

Arrugemenu for lir
uinctloD in icoiidnuet

Example 6,13 A lurCiCB coDdenser b required lo deal with 20000 kg ot sleam per hour,
and the air leakage u estimated at OJ kg per 1000 kg of steam. The ateam
eaten the eoadeoser dry saturated at M *C. Tire condensate b extracted at
the lowest point of the condenser at a temperature of 36 "C The condensate
loss b ma^ up with water at 7'C It b required to find the saving in
condensate and the saving in beat supplied in the boiler, by fitting a separate
air eitraclinn pump which draws the air over an air cooler. Assume that the
air leaves the cooler at 27”C The pressure in the condenser can be assumed
to remain consuuiL
Solution At entry, mass of air per kilogram of steam w 0.3/1000 kg.
At 38 *C the saturation pressure is 0.066 24 bar and c, » 21.63 m’/kg.
For I kg of steam the volume b 21.63 m’, an) ihb must be the volume
occupied by OJ/IOOO kg of air when exerting its partial pressure.
ai.g.r a3 K 0087 X 311 x 10*
Partial pressure of air
V “ 1000 x 21.63 x 10’
» la X I0'*bar

Thb b negligibly small and nay be neglected.

Condensate extraction: the saturation pressure at 36'C Is 0.0S94bar, and
c, - 23.97 m’/kg. The total pressure in the coadetuer b 0.066 24 bar, hence
a06624>0L0594 4-p, therefore p. • 0.006 84 bat

The mass of air removed per hour is

20000 x 03 ..
-m 6 kg/h
1000 •
Hence the volume of air removed per hour b
mRT 6 X tt2g7 X 309 X 10’
= 778m*/b
? 0310684 X 10’

191
Miittiru

TIk mus of sceam associated with the air removed is therefore given by

778
>3Z4SLg/h
a.97
Separate extraction: the saturation pressure at 27'C Is 0.03564bar and
e, • 38.81 n’/kg.
The air partial pressure is 0X166 24 - 0.035 64 - 0.0306 bar. Therefore the
volume of air rentoved a

mUT 6 x 0.287 x 300 x 10’

- 168.9 m’/b
0.0306 X 10’

iberefoR

16S>9
Steam removed - —— « 4.35 kg/h
39>BI

KeDce Ibe saviog io coodcosate by using the separate eairactioa method is

given by 3145 - 4.35 38.1 kg/h.
AJso. the saving in heal to be supplied in the boUer is approximately
23.1 X 4.132( 36 - 7)/3600 » 0.95 kW, where the mean specific heat of the water
is 4.182 ki/kg K.

Example 6.14 For the data of Example 6.13 cakulaie the perceotage reduction in air pump
eapaoty by using the separate extraction method. If the temperstufe rise of
(he eooUfig water is 5J K, calculaie the mass flow of cooling water required
So/ution Air pumpcapaciiy without aircooler « 778 mVh
Airpumpeapadty with (be air cooler • 166.9 m'/h

Therefore

Perceniage reduction in capadiy

-78.3S

The system to be analysed is shown in Fig. 6.11. Let suffixes t. a, and c

denote steam, air. and condensate respectively. Applying the steady-flow energy
equation and neglecting changes in kinetic energy, we have

Q + 16,,h,, + " I'hf.h., + '*.,*.,1 + '*«*<«

■h,,adt.,°6kg/b; 16,, = 20000kg/b; >6,, ^ 4.3Skg/h

hi, - 20000 - 4.35 - 20 000 kg/h approx.

■ c^T| - 7}) (from equation (2.18))

ue- C - (4.35 X 2550.31+[6 X 1.005(38 - 27)i
+ 120000 X 15a7)-(20000 X 2570.1)

192
 Protoivtna

Fig. 6.11 CondeiucT

(ysiem for Es ample 6.M

thtnton

6 s -49.38 X 10*kJ/h« -!3439kW

where » h( at 36^C » ISa? kJ/kg.

ie. Heal rejected-+13439kW “

The ma&s of cooling water required for a 3.5 K rise m temperature is

49.38 X IOV(5.5 x 4.182)» 11 x 10* kg^K. approKunairiy.

Uoless a very large naiural supply of cooling water is available for large
steam plania. means must be found to cool the cooling waier after use. This
can be done by passing the cooling water through a cooling tower; cooling
lowers are considered in Section 15.5.

Problems

(For values Q(A»Ki,. etc. which art necessary in the following problems, refer to
Table 6.5 on p 162; take values of lA lo the nearest whole number.)

6.1 A miaiure of carbon monoxide and oxygen u lo hr prepared in the proportion of 7 kg

io4 kg in a vessel of0.3 m’eapaeiiy If tbe temperature of the miaiure Is 15 *C determine
the pressure to which the vessel is subject. If the lempcraiurt ts raised to dQ*C. whit
win Uwn be tbe pressure m the vessel?
129.94 bar; 32.54 bar}

6.2 For the mriiure of Problem 6.1 calculate the volumetric analysis, the molar mass and
(he characierisiic gas consianL Calculate also tbe total anrount of substance irt the
mixture.
(33 3% 0^; 66.7% CO: 29.3 k g, kmol; 0.283 kJ / kg K: 0.37$ k mol)

193
Mlatura*

6^ An cxhdusl gu is auJySBd nnd is ibuod to coauin, by volume, 78% N^. 12% CO^.
and 10% O]. Whsl is ibe cosstspondiag gmnawrric ajiaJ/ta? CaJcuUte Uie nolir nuiMof
ibc misture, and ihe density U the teeperacure is 5S0”C aaj ihe lotal prosum if
I btr,
(72% N,. 17.4% CO,. 10.6% O,; 302) k|/kiDol: 0443 kg/a')

8.4 A vesd of 3 apeaty conuios a nuiture of aitropra and earboa dioaide, tbc tJuUyiif
by volume sbowinf equal quuMities of each. Tbc temperaiure is 15*C and ibe iota]
pfessura is XS bar Deienpine the mass of each eonsiitueoL
(6M4M,: 969k|CO,)

84 The cnisiure of Problem 64 is (o be chsoged eo (hat h a 70% CO, and 20% N, by

volume. Calculate (be mass of suslure lo be removed and the nao of CO, to be added
to live Ihe required mature al ibe same tetnperaiufe aod pressure as before.
(6.31 kg: 7.72 kg CO,)

8.8 In a miituK of aielhaae|CH«>aiid air there am three volumes of oxypen to ooe voluma of
meiluna From iaiiis] condiuoas of I bar and 95 X ibe gas is compressed reversibly
sod adiabeiieaUy through a vc4uiDe ratio of 5. Assuming ibai air contaiai only oxygen
sod nitrogen. cakuUte:
(i) the values of Cp, fp, t,, A and y for the mixture;
(ii) Ibe final pressure and tempeniuie of the mislure:
(o) the work ioput per eoic mass of mixiura
(1.057 U/kg K. 0.761 kJ /kg K. 29.60 kJ /kmol K. 21.31 kJ/kmol K.
0297 kJ/kg K. 1.389; 9J5 bar. 415J X: 243.8 k3/kg)

5.7 A mixture is made up of 25 % N35 % O,. 20% CO,, and 20% CO by volume. Calculste:
(j| (b« mofor mass of tbe miiiure:
(n) ip and i, for the mixiore:
till I 7 for Ihe mixture;
(iv) the partial pressure €4each conslhucal wheu tbe total pressure is l.S bar:
(V) tbe density of the miilurv al 1.5 bar and I5X.
(32.6kg/knol; 3084.2152 U/kmol K: U7;a275.0525.03.03 tar; 104 kg/m*)

8.8 Two vesseb are conneaed by a pipe in which there b a valve. One vessei of 03 m*
conuios air at 7 bar and 32*Caad the other of 003 m* contains oxygen at 21 ter and
15 X' Tte valve is opened and tbe two are allowed io mix. Assuming ibai Ihe
system is well lagged, eaknlate;
(i> tbe Rnsl temperature of tbe miiiure;
(iil the final pressure of the mixture:
liiil the partial pressure of each consdiueni:
liv) the volumetric analyse of (be mixture;
(vt the values of e,, ft, 4. and y (or the mixture:
|vi> the increase uf entropy of the system per kilogram of mixture;
Iviil theehange ra internal energy and enthalpy of the mixture per kilogram if the vessel
b cooled to lOX.
Assume that air comists only of oxygen and nitrogen.
4 27.9 X; 027 ter; 3.31.4.96 bar; 60% N,. 40% 0,; 6987. Q.709 k J / kg K:
0278 U, kg K; 29.91 kg/mol; 1.392; 0183 U/kg K; 1169,17.67 kJ/kg)

8.9 Air and carbon monoxide are mixed in the proportion 3 to 1 by mass. The CO ii
supplied al 4 bar and 15 'C and the air is supplied at 7 bar and 32' C. The two coneliiuenis
are puased in steady ftow through non*retum valves lo mix adiabatically al a pressure
of I bar. Cakulaict
(i> the final temperature of the mixture:

194
 Prebk»fna

In) iIk ptnb) pres$uf« o( each coit^jlueni of ibe miiiuir;

(bi) the mcrease of eoirop) per hilofrara of muinre:
|iv) ihe volume (km of miituce (or a Sow of 1 ks. min of CO;
(v) the telodt) o( ibe rauiutv il Uk ana of Ihe pipe downstream of the mixing section
ii (kl
127.7 ^ C; 0.2S6.41 $6.0.SU bar. 0.669 kj /kg K; 3.49 m Vmin; 0.562 m /s)

1.10 Ammoiut in ur b a loxtf auiture when the aiaraonia b 0.5S9t by volume. Calculate
how much leakage from an ammonia compressor can be loleraied per 1000 of spaee.
The pmsure b I bar aad the temperature is 15'C The molar mass of ammonia (NH j |
il 17 kg/kmol. ami it may he assumed io aci as a perleei gas In this case.
(3.91 kg)

A.11 A vessel of 03 m* opocny coniams a nuiiure of air and sisatn which is 0.75 dry If the
pressure is 7 bar and the icmpeniure is 110.9 *C. cakulaic the mass of water present,
the mass of dry saturated vapour, and the mass of air.
10.102 kg; 0.307 kg: 1.394 kg)

6.12 If the vessel of problem 6.11 is cooled to 100 ’C calculate:

(i) the mass of vapour condessad;
tu) ihe linal pressure in the vessd;
(iii) ibe beat rtyectcd.
{0.126 kg: 5.99 bar; 297 U)

9.11 A closed v«isel of voliiine 3 m* contains air saturated with water vapour at 36 *C and
a vacuum peessure of 660 mm of mercury*. The vacuum falls to 560 mra of mercury and
the lemperaiure falls to 26 7'C Calculate Ihe mass of air that has leaked in and the
quantity cd vapour that has eoodeosed. Take the barometric pressure as 760 mra Hg.
(0.563 kg: 0.0627 kg)

ft.14 Tlie air in a cylinder fitted wHJi a pisloo is saturated with water vapour. The volume is
OJ m*, tbe pressure is 3.5 bar and the temperature is 60.1 'C. The mislure is compressed
to $.5 bar. the temperature rtmaining consiani. Calculate:
(i) the masses of air and vapour present loitaalfy ;
(ii) the mau <d vapour condensed on compreuioo.
(1.036 kg; 0.0392 kg; O.OUg kg)

€.1$ The temperature in a v'eisel is 36 ’‘C and tbe proportion by mass of air to dry saturated
steam is 0.1. Whai b tbe pressure in the vessd in bar and in mra of mercury vacuum?
Tbe barometrK pressure is 760 mm Hg.
(00631 bar; 7117 mm Hg)

6.19 A surface condenser is fitted with separaie sir and condensate ouUeta. A portion of the
cooling surface is screened fri>m the inctming eteam and the air passes ov cr these aTcened
tubes to Ihe ait extraction and becomes cooled below the condensate lemperaiure. The
condenser receives 2O0C0k|>*b of steam dry saiuraied at 36 2'C. At the condensate
outlet the lemperaiure is 34.6*Caod ai the air extraction the temperature is 39'C. The
volume of air plus vapour leaving the condeivser ts 3.6m*/miB. Auuming constant
pressure ihrougboui the condenser coleuiate;
(i) the mass ^ air removed per 10000 kg of steam;
fii) the mass of steam condensed in the asr cooler per minute;
(bi) the beat rejeesed to the coothig wsser
Neglect the partial pressure of ihe air ai itdd to the condenser.
<2.63 kg; OS kg/mln; 134^1 kW)

19S