Mansoura University

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Electric Vehicles System

Supervised by
Prof. Saher Kaddah
Prof. Bishoy Elkis Sedhom

Prepared by
Eng. Mohamed Ali Arafa Ali

2025
 Contents
Abstract ..............................................................................................................................................................iii
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Existing EV-Related Surveys ................................................................................................................. 5
3 Electric Vehicles ....................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Electric VEHICLES Taxonomy ............................................................................................................. 8
3.2- Subsidies and Market Position........................................................................................................... 9
4 Batteries ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Characteristics of the Batteries ........................................................................................................... 12
4.2 The Cornerstones: Cost, Capacity, and Charging Time ................................................................ 15
4.3 Different Components and Battery Types ....................................................................................... 17
5 Charging of Electric Vehicles .................................................................................................................... 21
5.1 Charging Modes.................................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 Connectors ............................................................................................................................................. 24
6 Power Control and Energy Management ................................................................................................ 29
6.1 Thermal Management and Power Electronics ................................................................................ 30
7 Challenges of the Research and Open Opportunities ......................................................................... 32
7.1 New Challenges and Technologies in Batteries for EVs .............................................................. 32
7.2 Improvements in the Charging Process ........................................................................................... 34
7.3 Communications and AI in Electric Vehicles ................................................................................. 36
7.4 Eco Charge and Sustainability ........................................................................................................... 38
8 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 41
9 Reference ....................................................................................................................................................... 42

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Abstract
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are gaining momentum due to several factors, including
the price reduction as well as the climate and environmental awareness. This report
reviews the advances of EVs regarding battery technology trends, charging methods,
as well as new research challenges and open opportunities. More specifically, an
analysis of the worldwide market situation of EVs and their future prospects is
carried out. Given that one of the fundamental aspects in EVs is the battery, the
report presents a thorough review of the battery technologies—from the Lead-acid
batteries to the Lithium-ion. Moreover, we review the different standards that are
available for EVs charging process, as well as the power control and battery energy
management proposals. Finally, we conclude our work by presenting our vision
about what is expected in the near future within this field, as well as the report
aspects that are still open for both industry and academic communities

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 1 Introduction
The automotive industry has become one of the most important world-wide
industries, not only at economic level, but also in terms of research and
development. Increasingly, there are more technological elements that are being
introduced on the vehicles towards the improvement of both passengers and
pedestrians’ safety. In addition, there is a greater number of vehicles on the roads,
which allows for us to move quickly and comfortably. However, this has led to a
dramatic increase in air pollution levels in urban environments (i.e., pollutants, such
as PM, nitrogen oxides (NOX), CO, sulfur dioxide (SO2), etc.).
In addition, and according to a report by the European Union, the transport
sector is responsible for nearly 28% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions,
while the road transport is accountable for over 70% of the transport sector
emissions . Therefore, the authorities of most developed countries are encouraging
the use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) to avoid the concentration of air pollutants, CO2, as
well as other greenhouse gases. More specifically, they promote sustainable and
efficient mobility through different initiatives, mainly through tax incentives,
purchase aids, or other special measures, such as free public parking or the free use
of motorways. EVs offer the following advantages over traditional vehicles:
• Zero emissions: this type of vehicles neither emit tailpipe pollutants, CO2, nor
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Also, the manufacture processes tend to be more respectful
with the environment, although battery manufacturing adversely affects carbon
footprint.
• Simplicity: the number of Electric Vehicle (EV) engine elements is smaller, which
leads to a much cheaper maintenance. The engines are simpler and more compact,
they do not need a cooling circuit, and neither is necessary for incorporating
gearshift clutch, or elements that reduce the engine noise.
• Reliability: having less, and more simple, components makes this type of
vehicles have fewer breakdowns. In addition, EVs do not suffer of the inherent wear
and tear produced by engine explosions, vibrations, or fuel corrosion.
• Cost: the maintenance cost of the vehicle and the cost of the electricity required
is much lower in comparison to maintenance and fuel costs of traditional
combustion vehicles. The energy cost per kilometer is significantly lower in EVs than
in traditional vehicles, as shown in Figure 1.
• Comfort: traveling in EVs is more comfortable, due to the absence of vibrations
or engine noise.

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• Efficiency: EVs are more efficient than traditional vehicles. However, the overall
well to wheel (WTW) efficiency will also depend on the power plant efficiency. For
instance, total WTW efficiency of gasoline vehicles ranges from 11% to 27%,
whereas diesel vehicles range from 25% to 37% . By contrast, EVs fed by a natural
gas power plant show a WTW efficiency that ranges from 13% to 31%, whereas EVs
fed by renewable energy show an overall efficiency up to 70%.
• Accessibility: this type of vehicle allows for access to urban areas that are not
allowed to other combustion vehicles (e.g., low emissions zones). EVs do not suffer
from the same traffic restrictions in large cities, especially at high peaks of
contamination level. Interestingly, there was a recent OECD study that suggests that,
at least in terms of Particulate Matter (PM) emissions, EVs will unfortunately not
improve the air quality situation .

Figure 1. Comparison of savings in cost per kilometer offered by vehicles powered by Gasoline, Ethanol (E85),
Hybrid, Diesel oil, Biodiesel, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV), and Electricity [5].

On the other hand, EVs do, however, face significant battery-related challenges:
• Driving range: range is typically limited from 200 to 350 km with a full charge,
although this issue is being continually improved. For example, the Nissan Leaf has a
maximum driving range of 364 km , and the Tesla Model S can reach more than 500
km .

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• Charging time: full charging the battery pack can take 4 to 8 h. Even a “fast
charge” to 80% capacity can take 30 min. For example, Tesla superchargers can
charge the Model S up to 50% in only 20 min, or 80% in half an hour .
• Battery cost: large battery packs are expensive.Bulk and weight: battery packs
are heavy and take up considerable vehicle space. It is assumed that the batteries of
this type of vehicles have an approximate weight of 200 kg , which can vary,
depending on the battery capacity.
In the coming years, EVs will have a very important role in Smart cities, along with
shared mobility, public transport, etc. Therefore, more efforts to facilitate the
charging process and to improve batteries are needed. The main drawback of the
EVs is their autonomy. However, researchers are working on improved battery
technologies to increase driving range and decrease charging time, weight, and cost.
These factors will ultimately determine the future of EVs.
In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of the most important aspects
of EV technologies, charging modes, and the research carried out by different
research teams and labs. Figure 2 depicts the main topics that are presented in the
paper. Overall, the insight and contributions of our work are the following: (i) we
present an analysis of the existing surveys in the literature, motivating the need of
our work, since we present some aspects that had not been dealt with before, and
we cover the latest works that are presented in the literature, (ii) we analyze the
current worldwide market situation of EVs and their prospects,
(iii) we make a thorough review of the battery technologies—from the lead-acid
batteries to the Lithium-ion, including the latest technologies, such as graphene, (iv)
we review the different standards available for EV charge, as well as the types of
connectors that are defined by them, (v) we present the most relevant works
related to Battery Management Systems (BMSs), thermal management, and power
electronics, and (vi) we conclude our work by discussing what is shortly expected in
this field, as well as the research aspects, which, in our opinion, are still open for
both industry and academic community.

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 Figure 2. Topics included in our work.

The remainder of the paper is structured, as follows: Section 2 presents the most
rele- vant surveys available in the literature, and motivates the need of our
work. Section 3 presents an overview of the market, highlighting a taxonomy of the
different types of EVs, the evolution of sales of EVs, and the current market
situation. In Section 4, we discuss the most remarkable features of the batteries,
and the different types of batteries according to their technology. Section 5 shows
the diverse existing standards for charging the EVs, the different charging modes of
each standard, as well as the types of connectors defined by them. Section 6
explores the energy management in EVs, we especially focus on Battery
Management Systems (BMSs), thermal management, and power electronics. In
Section 7, we discuss aspects that are related to the EVs, which, in our opinion,
should be explored, that still require to be improved, or that present challenging
opportunities to the scientific community. Last, but not least, Section 8 presents the
main conclusions that were obtained from the realization of the present work.

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2 Existing EV-Related Surveys
In the last decade, there has been a significant progress in several aspects that
are related to the production of electric vehicles, and the use of new technologies as
well as their sales. Similarly, the research efforts have also increased, which has
caused a significant increase of new jobs and proposals that are related to electric
vehicles. Within this section, a short compilation of the most relevant topics related
to EVs, which have been addressed by previously available works in the literature,
are introduced. In addition, the more notable differences with this survey are
highlighted.
Some of the studies published to date deal with general aspects, such as the evo-
lution of electrical vehicles throughout history, give diverse classifications according
to the manner in which they have been designed and the characteristics of their
engines, or analyze their impact on the electrical infrastructure. For instance, Yong
et al. review the history of EVs from their creation, in the middle of the nineteenth
century, until present. Additionally, they carry out a classification of the vehicles
according to their powertrain settings. Finally, their work analyzes the impact of
charging electric vehicles on the electric grid. Likewise, Richardson studies the
effects that EVs can produce in the required productivity, efficiency, and capacity of
the electric grid. Furthermore, he reviews the economical and environmental impact
of electric vehicles. Habib et al. present a review of charging methods for electric
vehicles and analyze their impact in the power distribution systems. Additionally,
the authors carry out an analysis of coordinated and non-coordinated charging
methods, delayed loading, and intelligent planning of charges. Finally, they study the
economic benefits of the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology according to the charging
methods.
Another aspect also dealt with in diverse works has been the use of renewable
energy sources (i.e., wind power, solar, and biomass) and their incorporation in the
electric vehicles field. Liu et al. present a general vision about electric vehicles and
renewable energy sources. They specifically focus on solar and wind power, and
present a set of works that are classified into three categories: (i) those works which
study the interaction between EVs and the renewable energy sources for reducing
the energy cost, (ii) those works focused on improving the energy efficiency, and (iii)
the proposals that are mainly seeking to reduce emissions. On the other hand,
Hawkins et al. analyze the existing studies about the environmental impact of the
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and the Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). For that

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purpose, they present a study of 51 environmental evaluations during the life span
of the two kinds of vehicles (i.e., BEVs and HEVs). In their work, the authors take
aspects, such as greenhouse gas emissions, the production, transmission, and
distribution of electricity, as well as the production of vehicles, batteries, and their
life span, into account. Vasant et al. analyze the daily usage of PHEVs, and state that
the appropriate deployment of daytime charging stations along with suitable
charging control and management of this infrastructure can lead to a wider
deployment of PHEVs.
Unlike the previous works, Shuai et al. provide a general vision of the new
economic model that is present in electric vehicles, bearing in mind the
unidirectional and bidirectional flows of energy (in which the EVs themselves are
capable of providing energy to the electric grid). To do this, they analyze different
charging facilities for EVs, as well as different methods for unidirectional charging
and bidirectional energy commercialization. Finally, they study the use of these
vehicles as a feasible storage for the energy that is generated from renewable
sources.
Other authors have focused on the different strategies that have been proposed
for charging EVs. Tan et al. revise the benefits and challenges of vehicle technology
to the grid (V2G), in both the unidirectional and bidirectional charging. Besides
advantages, they analyze the challenges, such as the battery deterioration and the
high investment cost. Lastly, they complete a compilation of strategies for
optimizing V2G, by grouping them according to the technique employed (e.g.,
genetic algorithms (GAs) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)), as well as
according to the objectives: (i) operation costs,
(ii) carbon dioxide emissions, (iii) profit, (iv) support for renewable energy
generation,
(v) load curve, and (vi) power loss. Similar to the previous work, Hu et al. present a
revision and classification of methods for the intelligent charging of electric vehicles,
but, in this case, focused on the fleet operators. In particular, they present works
regarding battery modeling, charging and communications standards, as well as
driving patterns. Lastly, they showcase a set of different control strategies to
manage EV fleets, as well as mathematical algorithms for its modeling. Rahman et
al. present a set of employed methods for solving different problems that are
related with the charging infrastructure of PHEVs and BEVs. Additionally, they assess
the different charging systems in different environments, such as domestic garages,
apartment complexes, and shopping centers.Because the massive EV deployment

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will introduce negative impacts on the existing power grid, some works review the
different issues and the potential opportunities that EV integration in the smart grid
can bring. Yong et al. study the impact of EV deploy- ment from the perspective of
vehicle-to-grid technology, and especially for mitigating the renewable energies
intermittency. Mahmud et al. discuss all of the aspects related to EV charging,
energy transfer, and grid integration with distributed energy resources in the
Internet of Energy (IoE). More recently, Das et al. present an evaluation on how
future connected EVs and autonomous driving would affect EV charging and grid
integration.
Other important EV charging issues are those that are related to battery
management, as well as battery health and lifetime estimations, since they are key
factors in increasing the battery lifetime. Li et al. review recent advancements in Big
Data analytics to allow for data-driven battery health estimation. More specifically,
they classify them in terms of feasibility and cost-effectiveness, and discuss their
advantages and limitations. Liu et al. go one step further and propose a machine
learning-enabled system that is based on Gaussian process regression (GPR) to
predict lithium-ion batteries aging. Finally, other approaches instead explore
advanced fault diagnosis techniques, since battery faults can potentially cause
performance degradation .
As previously shown, in general, most of the studies that deal with EVs have
focused on: (i) the impact of EV charging in the electric demand, (ii) the use of
renewable energy sources in the charging process, and (iii) the proposal of new
methods for optimizing the charge of electric vehicles, including grid solutions.
However, in this paper, we present the current situation of the market of electric
vehicles, the main characteristics of the batteries, their technologies, and charging
processes.
In particular, besides carrying out a comparison between the different standards,
we display the different charging methods that are defined by these standards, and
the connectors used by each of them. Finally, we also discuss the challenges that
EVs have to face, and the research lines that we consider are left to explore yet.

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 3 Electric Vehicles
In this section, we present a classification of the different types of electric
vehicles, commenting on their main characteristics. We also discuss the current
market situation, analyzing the sales data of this kind of vehicles and sales forecast
in different countries in the world.

3.1 Electric VEHICLES Taxonomy

Nowadays, we can encounter different types of EVs, according to their engines
tech- nology. In general, they are sorted in five types (See Figure 3):
• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): vehicles 100% are propelled by electric power.
BEVs do not have an internal combustion engine and they do not use any kind of
liquid fuel. BEVs normally use large packs of batteries in order to give the vehicle an
acceptable autonomy. A typical BEV will reach from 160 to 250 km, although some
of them can travel as far as 500 km with just one charge. An example of this type of
vehicle is the Nissan Leaf , which is 100% electric and it currently provides a 62 kWh
battery that allows users to have an autonomy of 360 km.
• Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): hybrid vehicles are propelled by a con-
ventional combustible engine and an electric engine charged by a pluggable external
electric source. PHEVs can store enough electricity from the grid to significantly re-
duce their fuel consumption in regular driving conditions. The Mitsubishi Outlander
PHEV provides a 12 kWh battery, which allows it to drive around 50 km just with the
electric engine. However, it is also noteworthy that PHEVs fuel consumption is
higher than indicated by car manufacturers.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): hybrid vehicles are propelled by a combination
of a conventional internal combustion engine and an electric engine. The difference
with regard to PHEVs is that HEVs cannot be plugged to the grid. In fact, the battery
that provides energy to the electric engine is charged thanks to the power
generated by the vehicle’s combustion engine. In modern models, the batteries can
also be charged thanks to the energy generated during braking, turning the kinetic
energy into electric energy. The Toyota Prius, in its hybrid model (4th generation),
provided a 1.3 kWh battery that theoretically allowed it an autonomy as far as 25
km in its all-electric mode .
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): these vehicles are provided with an electric
engine that uses a mix of compressed hydrogen and oxygen obtained from the air,

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having water as the only waste resulting from this process. Although these kinds of
vehicles are considered to present “zero emissions”, it is worth highlighting that,
although there is green hydrogen, most of the used hydrogen is extracted from
natural gas. The Hyundai Nexo FCEV is an example of this type of vehicles, being
able to travel 650 km without refueling.
• Extended-range EVs (ER-EVs): these vehicles are very similar to those ones in the
BEV category. However, the ER-EVs are also provided with a supplementary
combustion engine, which charges the batteries of the vehicle if needed. This type
of engine, unlike those provided by PHEVs and HEVs, is only used for charging, so
that it is not connected to the wheels of the vehicle. An example of this type of
vehicles is the BMW i3 , which has a 42.2 kWh battery that results in a 260 km
autonomy in electric mode, and users can benefit an additional 130 km from the
extended-range mode.

Figure 3. Electric vehicles classification according to their engine technologies and settings.

3.2- Subsidies and Market Position

Despite the fact that the purchase price of electric vehicles is higher, when
considering the internal combustion engine edition of the same vehicle model, the
EV sales volume has experienced a significant growth, especially in the last years .
Additionally, many countries are preparing the mobility transition, discouraging the
use of fossil fuel based cars, and stimulating electric mobility. Evidence of this is the
fact that, after the Paris Agreement , there has been an increase of the public aids to
this kind of vehicles.
In fact, practically all of the governments of the developed countries are
continuously applying new support and fostering policies for the use of electric
vehicles in order to promote sustainable and environment-friendly mobility.
Based on the report from , for instance, Belgium offers 4000 e of purchase aid,

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and these types of vehicles pay a road tax of only 74 e, instead of the 1900 e that
traditional vehicles pay. In France, the users who purchase an EV receive a bonus of
between 4000 e and 6000 e in the case of BEVs, and of 3500 e in the case of
purchasing an PHEV. A discount between 50% and 100% is also offered in the
registration fee. In the United Kingdom, an incentive of a maximum of £4500 will be
offered with the purchase of an EV and, if its worth is less than £40,000, the vehicle
is exempted of circulation taxes. In Germany, buyers receive a bonus of 4000 e to
purchase a BEV, and of 3000 e in the case of PHEVs. Additionally, BEVs do not pay
property taxes, while PHEVs have a reduction of 50%. In the case of Spain, an aid of
between 1300 e and 5500 e is offered to purchase BEVs and HEVs, according to their
autonomy. In Norway, the property tax for BEVs and PHEVs is of 47 e, while, for
petrol-driven cars, such tax varies from 290 e to 340 e. In addition, BEVs do not pay
circulation fees or tolls, and they do not pay for parking in the preferred parking
areas. Finally, in the USA, the federal government provides $2500 for purchasing
electric vehicles and an additional $417 for every kWh of their batteries from 4 kWh,
to a maximum of $7500.
All of these subsidies and policies (e.g., car purchasing tax exemption, VAT
exemption, reduced license tax, tolls exemption, and free parking) are causing a
noteworthy increase of the number of sales every year (especially in the last two
years), as can be appreciated in Figure 4 and Table 1. As we can observe, China and
USA are, by far, the countries that have the most EV sales, although Norway stands
out as the country in the world, in which EVs have a higher market share as almost
three out of four vehicles sold in 2020 are electric.

Table 1. Electric Vehicle (EV) market share of total new car sales between 2013 and 2020 [35–41].

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 Figure 4. Evolution of the number of electric vehicle sales worldwide .
According to , these numbers are expected to keep increasing within the next
years, since several countries have expressed their desire to ban internal
combustion engine vehicles in the near future. An example of this is Norway, which
has announced that all the cars and vans sold in 2025 should be zero-emissions. For
their part, India, Israel, and The Netherlands have announced that all of the vehicles
sold in 2030 will be electric. Germany and United Kingdom delay this date to 2040,
the same year in which combustion vehicles will also be banned in the state of
California. In a more restrictive way, in Germany they are considering banning the
circulation of diesel vehicles in the cities, and Paris has announced that they will
forbid diesel vehicles to circulate in the city from 2024 and those of internal
combustion from 2030. Rome will ban the circulation of diesel vehicles from 2024,
whereas Madrid, Athens, and Mexico city will do it from 2025.
However, besides the positive data of sales registered worldwide, it is also
noteworthy that 95% of the electric vehicles were sold in only 10 countries (i.e.,
China, USA, Japan, Canada, Norway, United Kingdom, France, Germany, The
Netherlands, and Sweden).
Finally, it should also be emphasized that there are currently several models of
BEVs and PHEVs for sale. Regarding the most sold models, the Tesla Model 3 (BEV),
Toyota Prius Prime (PHEV), Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf (BEV), Tesla model S (BEV),
Ford Fusion Energi (PHEV), and BMW i3 (BEV) stand out .
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4 Batteries
In this section, interesting facts that are related to batteries are presented, such
as the worldwide production increase, cost reduction, main characteristics, as well
as the different existent technologies in the manufacturing process. In the last years,
there have been great advancements in the development of batteries. In addition,
the worldwide production of batteries for EVs has increased 66% , which is
undoubtedly directly related to the rise of number of sales of the vehicles, with the
forecast predicting the demand of batteries keeps growing. In fact, it is predicted
that the offer and the demand of EVs will be even bigger in the coming years.

4.1 Characteristics of the Batteries

Concerning the main characteristics of batteries, we can highlight the following:
• Capacity. The storage difficulty and cost is one of the main problems of electric
power. Currently, this results in the allocation of great amounts of money in the
development of new batteries with higher efficiency and reliability, thus improving
batteries’ storage capacity.
The battery capacity represents the maximum amount of energy that can be
extracted from the battery under certain specified conditions. This unit can be
expressed in ampere hour (Ah) or in watt hour (Wh), although the latter one is more
commonly used by electric vehicles. When considering that, in EVs, the capacity of
their batteries is a critical aspect, since it has a direct impact in the vehicles’
autonomy, the emergence of new technologies that enables the storage of a greater
energy quantity in the shortest possible time will be a decisive factor in the success
of this kind of vehicles. Table 2 shows data that are related to the battery capacities
of EVs. As shown, the capacity of batteries is continuously growing and vehicles with
more that 100 kWh batteries are expected very soon.
• Charge state. Refers to the battery level with regard to its 100% capacity.
• Energy Density. Obtaining the highest energy density possible is another
important aspect in the development of batteries, in other words, that with equal
size and weight a battery is able to accumulate a higher energy quantity. The energy
density of batteries is measured as the energy that a battery is able to supply per
unit volume (Wh/L). Specific energy. The energy that a battery is able to provide per
unit mass (Wh/kg). Some authors also refer to this feature as energy density, and it
can be specified in Wh/L or Wh/kg.

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• Specific power. The power that a battery can supply per unit of weight (W/kg).
Charge cycles. A load cycle is completed when the battery has been used or loaded
100%.
• Lifespan. Another aspect to consider is the batteries lifespan, which is measured
in the number of charging cycles that a battery can hold. The goal is to obtain
batteries that can endure a greater number of loading and unloading cycles.
• Internal resistance. The components of the batteries are not 100% perfect
conductors, which means that they offer a certain resistance to the transmission of
electricity. During the charging process, some energy is dispelled in the form of heat
(namely, thermal loss). The generated heat per unit of time is equal to the lost
power in the resistance, so the internal resistance will have a greater impact in
high power charges . Thus, more energy will be lost during quick charging processes
when compared to slow ones.
Therefore, it is highly important that batteries can support quick charging and higher
temperatures induced due to the internal resistance. In addition, the decrease of
this resistance can reduce the charging time that is required, which is one of the
most important drawbacks of this type of vehicles today.
• Efficacy. It is the percentage of power that is offered by the battery in relation to
the energy charged.
Table 2. Battery capacities of different electric vehicles .

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 Table 2. Cont.

4.2 The Cornerstones: Cost, Capacity, and Charging Time

Currently, the batteries are the main obstacle to EV wider adoption. The
development of better, cheaper, and higher capacity batteries will extend vehicles
autonomy, and the users view them as a true alternative to the internal combustion
engine vehicles.
In fact, batteries are a key component in EVs and therefore, there are increasing
manufacturers (e.g., LG, Panasonic, Samsung, Sony, and Bosch) that invest to
develop improved and cheaper batteries.
The most expensive component, in any EV, is the battery pack . For instance,
lithium-ion batteries of the Nissan LEAF initially represented a third of the cost of
the whole vehicle. However, it is expected that this cost will be progressively
reduced; at the end of 2013, the battery pack costs around $500 per kWh (up to half
the price per kWh it cost in 2009); currently, the price per kWh is of $200, and it is
expected to fall around $100 in 2025. Another fact that reinforces the battery cost
reduction trend is that Tesla Motors is building a “Gigafactory” in order to cut down
on the production costs and raise the manufacturing of batteries. The Gigafactory is
designed to produce more lithium-ion batteries annually than the produced
worldwide in 2013 . The lower battery cost would have an obviously direct impact
on EV price drop, which makes them more competitive with regard to traditional
vehicles.

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 Regarding the capacity, Figure 5 shows the capacity of the batteries of different
EVs from 1983, the date on which the Audi Duo was marketed with an 8 kWh
battery until 2022, the date on which Tesla announced that will market a Tesla
Roadster with a 200 kWh battery .
When traveling with an EV, the key factor is the autonomy, but another limiting
factor is the time that is required for charging the batteries. The standard power
outlets provide around 3 kW power, which would imply a 10 h load on average for
charging a maximum of 30 kWh energy in a battery . Even in the case of using fast
charging systems, charging a vehicle may require between 1 and 3 h. In order to
solve this problem, an alternative is the creation of Battery Exchange Stations
(BESs), which are also known as Battery Swap Stations (BSSs), where batteries are
exchanged by similar ones already charged. Israel initially located 33 BESs , although
Better Place (the company that developed battery-switching services for EVs) filed
for bankruptcy in May 2013. However, this approach was extended to the city of
Nanjing in 2015 , a city of eight million people, which has thousands of electric buses
operating. BESs were also tested by taxi vehicles in Tokyo in 2010 . Thinking about
this strategy, Tesla created a system in their Model S, in which batteries can be
exchanged in only 90 s . Denmark is studying the possibility of creating a sufficient
number of BESs with the purpose of providing an infrastructure with 900 charging
points and charging batteries stations that are operated by robots .

Figure 5. Evolution of the battery capacity since the mid 80s until now.

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 Concerning the approaches that are related to battery exchange proposed on a
scien- tific level, Adler and Mirchandani suggested an in-line routing method for
electric vehicles that allows for changing the batteries in BEs using Markov’s random
decision processes. Such a method would reduce the waiting time more than 35%.
Mak et al. proposed robust optimization models that help the process of the battery
exchange plan- ning. The authors also analyzed the possibility of battery
standardization and technological development in the optimal strategy for
deploying the infrastructures. Yang et al. presented a dynamic operation model of
BSSs in the electric market, acquiring extra in- comes when actively responding to
the price fluctuation in the electricity market. Storandt and Funke approached the
EVs routing problem with the aim of finding out what destinations are accessible
from a particular location according to the current battery level of the vehicle and
the availability of charging or exchange battery stations.

4.3 Different Components and Battery Types

However, the increase of the number of EV models, as well as the different types
of batteries and the lack of standardization, are not making the use of BESs a
feasible process, since all of the vehicles served by BES should use identical
batteries. In fact, although lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion) are increasingly used in EVs,
there exists a great variety of batteries, among which the following stand out:
• Lead-acid batteries (Pb-PbO2). These batteries were invented in 1859 and are
the oldest kind of rechargeable battery. Although this kind of battery is very
common in conventional vehicles, it has also been used in electric vehicles. It has
very low specific energy and energy density ratios. The battery is formed by a
sulfuric acid deposit and a group of lead plates. During the initial loading process,
the lead sulfate is reduced to metal in the negative plates, while, in the positives,
lead oxide is formed (PbO2). The GM EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV, are examples of
vehicles that used this kind of batteries.
• Nickel-cadmium batteries (Ni-Cd). This technology was used in the 90s, as these
batteries have a greater energy density , but they present high memory effect, low
lifespan, and cadmium is a very expensive and polluting element. For these reasons,
nickel-cadmium batteries are currently being substituted by nickel-metal-hydride
(NiMH) batteries.
• Nickel-metal-hydride batteries (Ni-MH). In this type of batteries, an alloy that
stores hydrogen is used for negative electrodes instead of cadmium (Cd) [67].

17
Although they present a higher level of self discharge than those of nickel-cadmium,
these batteries are used by many hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius and the
second version of the GM EV1. The Toyota RAV4 EV, apart from having a lead-acid
version, also had another with nickel-metal-hydride.
• Zinc-bromine batteries (Zn-Br2). These kinds of batteries use a zinc-bromine
solution stored in two tanks, and in which bromide turns into bromine in the
positive electrode. This technology was used by a prototype, called ”T-Star”, in 1993.
• Sodium chloride and nickel batteries (NA-NiCl). Also being referred to as Zebra,
they are very similar to sodium sulfur batteries. Their advantage is that they can
offer up to 30% more energy in low temperatures, although its optimum operating
range is between 260 ◦C and 300 ◦C. These kinds of batteries are ideal for its use in
electric vehicles . The disappeared Modec company used them in 2006.
• Sodium sulfur batteries (Na-S), which contain sodium liquid (Na) and sulfur (S).
This type of battery has a high energy density, high loading and unloading efficiency
(89–92%), and a long life cycle. In addition, their advantage is that these materials
have a very low cost. However, they can reach functioning temperatures of between
300 and 350 ◦C . This type of batteries is used in the Ford Ecostar, the model that
was launched in 1992–1993.
• Lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion). These batteries employ, as electrolyte, a lithium
salt that provides the necessary ions for the reversible electrochemical reaction that
takes place between the cathode and anode. Lithium-ion batteries have the
advantages of the lightness of their components, their high loading capacity, their
internal resistance, as well as their high loading and unloading cycles. In addition,
they present a reduced memory effect.
Lithium-ion batteries must operate within a safe and reliable operation area,
which is restricted by the temperature and voltage windows. Exceeding the
restrictions of these windows will cause a quick mitigation of the battery
performance and even result in a security hazard (e.g., catch fire or even explode),
as from 150 ◦C electrolytes start to destroy themselves . This type of battery is the
most used today by the majority of EVs and PHEVs.
Table 3 and Figure 6 include a comparison of the most relevant characteristics of
the different technologies introduced. An important aspect when comparing the
different technologies is their working− temperature, since it can limit their adoption.
In that regard, lead-acid and lithium batteries are the best that put up with low
temperatures, as they can load temperatures up to 20 ◦C, although, in the case of Li-
Ion batteries, low temperatures seriously affect its capacity, causing self-discharge .

18
In fact, this type of battery has an optimum functioning temperature of 40 ◦C. As we
can also observe, batteries that are formed by sodium (Na-NiCl y Na-S) have higher
functioning temperatures. Regarding the specific energy and the energy density,
lead-acid (Pb-PbO2) and Nickel (Ni-Cd, Ni-MH) batteries stand out negatively, while
the more valuable batteries are, by far, the lithium- ion ones.
Table 3. Characteristics of EV batteries .

Figure 6. A comparison of battery technologies in terms of their Cycle Durability (x-axis), Energy Density (y-axis),
Specific Energy (bubble size), and Working Temperature (bubble color). Note that warm colors represent higher
working temperatures.

19
 Concerning the specific power, lead and zinc batteries offer worse results (up to
100 W/kg), while the kinds of batteries with the best scores are those of Ni-MH
(with a maximum of 1000 W/kg), and Li-ion, which offer up to 3000 W/kg. As far as
the cells voltage, batteries that are formed by nickel and zinc are the ones with
lower voltage, while sodium batteries (Na-S y Na-NiCl) and Li-ion use a higher
voltage. On the other hand, with respect to the life cycles, the batteries that offer
worse results are those of Ni-MH and lead-acid. Lastly, lithium batteries are able to
support up to 3000 cycles, and those of Na-S are those that offer better results,
supporting up to 4500 cycles.
When considering all of the above parameters, current electric vehicles rely on
lithium ion technology for their batteries, as this technology presents the best
performance in almost all of the analyzed characteristics.

20
5 Charging of Electric Vehicles
Besides the autonomy, another important aspect is the duration and the
characteristics of the charging process of the batteries. In order for the EVs to
definitely succeed, it will be necessary that the users can charge their vehicles in a
fast and simple way. To do so, it will be fundamental to have an infrastructure
deployment that allows such fast and simple charge. This implies charging at homes,
and the creation of electric charging stations that provide quick charges during long
commuting. Below, the different standards or rules that are created for electric
vehicles charging technology are presented. In particular, we detail the different
charging modes that are defined in the current standards, as well as the connectors.
When charging electric vehicles, we can find different standards, which are deter-
mined, mainly, by the region in which they are being used or applied. More
specifically, in North America, and in the Pacific zone, the SAE-J1772 standard for
loading electric vehicles is used. However, in China, the GB/T 20234 standard is
used, whereas, in Europe, the IEC-62196 standard was introduced. The main
difference between these three standards is that while the two former ones classify
the charging modes according to the power type (DC or AC power), the latter one
classifies such modes by the charging power involved.
The SAE-J1772 mode is a North American standard of electric connectors for electric
vehicles created in 1996, and supported by SAE International. This standard is
common in USA and Japan, and it establishes the following charging modes (see
Table 4):
• AC Level 1. Standard electrical outlet that provides voltage in AC of 120 V
offering a maximum intensity of 16 A, which serves a maximum power of 1.9 kW.
• AC Level 2. Standard electrical outlet with 240 V AC and a maximum intensity of
80 A, so it offers a maximum power of 19.2 kW.
• DC Level 1. External charger that by inserting a maximum voltage of 500 V DC
with a maximum intensity of 80 A, it provides a maximum power of 40 kW.
• DC Level 2. External charger that, by inserting a maximum voltage of 500 V DC
with a maximum intensity of 200 A, provides a maximum power of 100 kW.

21
 Table 4. Charge ratings of the SAE-J1772 .

5.1 Charging Modes

The IEC-62196 standard is an international standard created by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2001 for charging electrical vehicles in Europe
and China. The IEC-62196 establishes the general characteristics of the charging
process, as well as the way in which the energy is supplied. This norm derives from
the IEC-61851 and it provides a first classification of the charging type according to
its nominal power and, thus, of the charging time . Users are provided with four
modes in order to charge the vehicles (see Table 5).
• Mode 1 (Slow charging). It is defined as a domestic charging mode, with a
maximum intensity of 16 A, and it uses a standard single-phase or three-phase
power outlet with phase(s), neutral, and protective earth conductors. This mode is
the most used in our homes.
• Mode 2 (Semi-fast charging). This mode can be used at home or in public areas,
its defined maximum intensity is of 32 A, and, similar to the previous mode, it uses
standardized power outlets with phase(s), neutral, and protective earth conductors.
• Mode 3 (Fast charging). It provides an intensity between 32 and 250 A. This
charging mode requires the use of an EV Supply Equipment (EVSE), a specific power
supply for charging electric vehicles. This device (i.e., the EVSE) provides
communication with the vehicles, monitors the charging process, incorporates
protection systems, and stops the energy flow when the connection to the vehicle is
not detected.
• Mode 4 (Ultra-fast charging). Published in the IEC-62196-3, it defines a direct
con- nection of the EV to the DC supply network with a power intensity of up to 400
A and a maximum voltage of 1000 V, which provides a maximum charging power up
to 400 kW. These modes also require an external charger that provides
communication between the vehicle and the charging point, as well as protection
and control.

22
 Table 5. Charge ratings of the IEC-62196.

Guobiao Standards (GB) created the GB/T-20234 standard for charging

infrastructures of electric vehicles in China. Although China initially adopted the
European standard IEC-62196, the use of their own standard, such as the GB/T-
20234, is being promoted. This standard classifies the charging modes between AC
and DC, as shown in Table 6.
Based on the survey performed, the SAE-J1772 standard is the only one that
includes a 120 V charging mode (see Table 4). The rest of standards, even in their
lowest charging modes, work at a higher voltages. As for their most powerful
modes, the SAE-J1772 is also the standard that offers a lower voltage (i.e., 500 V)
when compared to the 1000 V offered by both the IEC-62196 and the GB/T-20234.
Regarding the amperage, the standard that offers a lower current intensity is the
GB/T-20234 with 10 A against the 16 A offered by the other two standards.
However, in their most powerful modes, the SAE-J1772 only supports a 200 A
maximum intensity, as compared to 250 A of the GB/T-20234 and 400 A of the IEC-
62196.
Concerning the charging modes that are based on AC power, the standard that
offers a lower power load is the SAE-J1772 with 1.9 kWh when compared to the 2.5
kWh of the GB/T-20234 and the 3.8 kWh supported by the IEC-62196. The standard
that offers higher power is the IEC-62196 with 120 kWh, against the 27.7 kWh of the
GB/T-20234 and the 19.2 kWh of the SAE-J1772. Something similar occurs in the
loading modes based on DC power, in which the IEC-62196 is the standard that
offers higher power with 400 kWh, against the 250 kWh of the GB/T-20234 and the
100 kWh offered by the SAE-J1772.
It is also worth noting the case of Tesla Company, which, although it is not an
inter- national standard itself, it has its own fast charging points, called Supercharger
Stations. Tesla’s superchargers work in DC and use their own system, whose patents
23
have been mostly released. Although they have a maximum charging power of 145
kWh, such power is currently limited to 120 kWh, which allows for charging half of
the battery of a Model S in only 20 min., or 80% in half an hour . Although Tesla
affirms that its superchargers are ultra-fast charging points, if we consider the IEC-
62196 criterion (see Table 5), these charging points would be equal to a Mode 3
(fast charging).
Tesla’s Supercharger Stations are being installed in main routes every 200 km.
Cur- rently, there are 1604 stations and a total of 14,081 superchargers around the
world . Additionally, the users of these vehicles have 400 kWh of free charging,
which is enough for driving about 1600 km, a strategy that seeks to encourage users
to purchase Tesla vehicles.
Table 6. Charging classification of the GB/T-20234

5.2 Connectors
Electric vehicles have an AC/DC converter that allows charging their batteries at
home through the use of traditional outlets (e.g., the Schuko in Europe). However,
when requiring faster charges, Electric Vehicle Charging Stations must be used, since
they can directly supply DC power to the batteries. Charging Stations can supply
electricity through different connectors, depending on the standard supported, and
they present the following advantages:
• They are sealed solutions (not affected by water or humidity).
• They carry a mechanic or electronic blockage.
• They enable communication with the vehicle.
• Electricity is not supplied until the blockage system is not activated.
• While the blockage system is activated, the vehicle cannot be set in motion, so
that a vehicle cannot leave while plugged.
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• Some connectors are able to charge in three-phase mode.
There currently exists a wide range of connectors for charging electric vehicles.
These connectors are defined by the different standards: the Society of Automotive
Engineers
(SAE) is in charge of its normalization in the US and in part of the Pacific countries;
the IEC is responsible for its standardization in a great part of the countries in the
world, mainly in Europe; and, the Guobiao Standards (GB) manages the
standardization in China.
J1772-2009 connectors include different protection levels, and they can even be
used in rainy conditions. The AC version (see Figure 7a) was designed for single-
phase electric systems with 120 V or 240 V, and they consist of five pins:
• AC pins, two pins to provide power to the vehicle (phase and neutral).
• Ground connection, a security measure, which connects the electrical system
to the
ground.
• Proximity detection, which avoids the vehicle to move while plugged.
• Pilot Control, which allows communication with the vehicle.

25
 Figure 7. EV Connectors considered by the different standards .

There exists a second version of the connector that is designed to perform a fast
charge. This allows the charging time to be drastically reduced, charging the
batteries of a vehicle up to the 80% in 20 min. This connector, the so-called
Combined Charging System (CCS), enables AC slow charge or fast charge to DC, and
its appearance is very similar to the AC version, but with two additional pins to
charge in DC (see Figure 7b).
The IEC-62196 adopted the specifications of the connectors of the IEC 60309
standard, including them in its second version (IEC-62196-2), which was published
by the IEC in October of 2011. More specifically, it suggests four types of plugs:
• Type 1 (SAE-J1772-2009) Yazaki. With the aim of finding a standardized
connector, the Type 1 AC charging, apart from being included in the SAE-J1772
standard, was also included in the IEC-62196-2. In fact, this connector is commonly

26
found in charging equipments for EVs in North America and Japan , and it is used by
a great amount of vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt, the Toyota
Prius Prime, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, the Ford Focus Electric, the Tesla Roadster, and
the Tesla Model S. This connector can be observed in Figure 7a.
• Type 2 (VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2) Mennekes. It was originally designed to be used in
the industrial sector, so it was not specifically designed for EVs (see Figure 7c). In
singlephase it is limited up to 230 V, but, in three-phase, is able to hold high voltages
and intensities. This connector has 7 pins, i.e., four for the power (in three-phase
mode), one ground connection, and two pins to communicate with the vehicle
(blockage and communications). An example of a vehicle that uses this connector is
the Renault Zoe, which can be charged with the Mennekes connector up to 43 kWh.
Although, at first, it was not designed for fast charging, Type 2 also includes another
connector, called Combined Charging System (CCS) (see Figure 7d), being essentially
an adapted Mennekes adapted to supply up to 400 A to 1000 V, which would imply
a charging power up to 400 kWh .
• Type 3 (EV Plug Alliance connector) Scame. Single-phase and three-phase
connector, designed by the EV Plug Alliance in 2010. It supplies 230 V/400 V and
from 16 to 63 A . France and Italy suggested the use of this connector for their
vehicles (see Figure 7e), but, due to the poor acceptance, the production of Type 3
connectors has been finally abandoned.
• Type 4 (EVS G105-1993) CHAdeMO. Promoted by TEPCO (Tokyo Electric Power
Company), it is commonly found in the EVs charging equipment in Japan, although it
is also used in Europe and USA (see Figure 7f). CHAdeMO is designed to supply fast
charges in DC. In its first versions, it held up to 400 V, starting the charge with up to
200 A. Nowadays, CHAdeMO chargers have already been designed with 150 kW
power, and they aim to reach 350 kW . This connector has ten pins, two for DC
power supply, one for ground connection, and seven pins for communicating with
the network. On the 8th of February of 2018, there existed 7133 CHAdeMO charging
points in Japan, 6022 in Europe, and 2290 in the USA . In fact, it is added to
numerous vehicles, such as in the Nissan Leaf, the Nissan e-NV200, the Mitsubishi i-
MiEV, and the KIA Soul EV.
Concerning the GB/T 20234 standard that is used in China, a distinguishing
feature against the SAE-J1772 and IEC-62196, is that, while the latter ones use the
same communication protocol between the vehicle and the charger, the Chinese
standard operates with a different one, which causes the incompatibility of these
charging systems .

27
 The GB/T 20234 considers two kinds of connectors. The connector used for
charges based on AC is physically the same used in the IEC Type 2 or the Mennekes
(see Figure 7c), although they are incompatible with the European vehicles that use
the same connector, as they use different protocols. The standard defines their own
connector in order to carry out the DC charges (see Figure 7g).
Finally, Tesla employs two different connectors for the fast charging of their
vehicles, when considering whether the vehicles are sold in Europe (see Figure 7c)
or in the United States (see Figure 7h). In Europe, Tesla adopted the Mennekes
connector, although slightly modified in order to perform both domestic charge (AC)
and ultra-fast charges (DC) in their Superchargers. For the United States, Tesla
designed their own connector.

28
6 Power Control and Energy Management
The energy management is a critical factor for EVs and PHEVs. Hence, the battery
management system (BMS) is a key system that is designed to manage and control
the battery unit in this kind of vehicle. More specifically, BMS is responsible for
managing the energy that is provided by the batteries with the aim of guaranteeing
their safety and reliability. Current BMSs comprise of multiple blocks, such as power
delivery unity, sensors, and communication channels, integrated together.
The prime task of BMSs is to manage the power delivery trying to reduce the
battery stress due to charges and discharges. BMS is the central controller
preventing sudden abruption in current, and thus avoiding high discharge rates.
Cell balancing is also critical for EVs’ high-powered battery packs, because a long
series of individual cells is only as reliable as the weakest cell. According to this, the
BMS maintains cell balancing by compensating the load of the weaker cell. In
particular, it equalizes the charge on all cells in the chain to extend the overall life of
the battery pack. In this way, BMS prevents individual cells from becoming
overstressed.
Another important task of BMSs is measuring the state of charge and computing
the driving range. Auxiliary devices, such as headlamps, the dashboard, and the
cool- ing/heating unit, also draw power from the battery pack. However, these
devices are not smart, nor do they communicate with BMS. A smarter managing of
these energy demands would result in a better power delivery without reducing the
power train efficiency.
Related to all of the abovementioned issues, several authors have proposed
different BMS architectures. For instance, Hauser and Kuhn present the
requirements that a BMS should cover: (i) data acquisition, (ii) data processing and
storage, (iii) electrical management, (iv) thermal management, (v) safety
management, and (vi) communication. Taking all of these characteristics into
account, they show a BMS schematic illustration (see Figure 8). Other authors, such
as Xing et al. present a review of BMS for Battery Electric (BEVs) and Hybrid Vehicles
(HVs) when considering the state of charge, the state of health, and the state of life,
as the key features to be considered by BMSs.

29
Figure 8. Main components of the Battery Management System (BMS).
A more ambitious feature to be included by future BMSs was proposed by
Zhang et al. Particularly, the authors simulate how to extend driving ranges, by pre-
dicting both terrain changes and preceding vehicle’s movement. In their simulations,
EV velocity and motor torque distribution are optimized by a nonlinear predictive
controller model to reduce energy consumption.
In fact, future BMSs will be smarter and faster, integrating on chip analytics
capabilities to accurately estimate driving ranges and smart adapting to load
changes for better power delivery. BMSs will also support: (i) different and adaptive
charging protocols, (ii) any battery cell number, sizes, and configurations, and (iii)
vehicle to grid capabilities, enabling charging transactions or booking charging slots.

6.1 Thermal Management and Power Electronics

One of the most important blocks in BMSs is thermal management, as can be
observed in Figure 8. In particular, it can be necessary to increase batteries’
temperature to improve their performance in cold weather conditions. With this
aim, Shang et al. proposed a high-frequency sine-wave (SW) heater that is based on
resonant LC converters to self-heat the automotive batteries at low-temperatures.
Their proposal is able to double the heating speed without the need of external
heaters. they also proposed a compact heater, based upon resonant switched
capacitors (RSCs) that are powered by the on-board battery pack, leading to an easy
implementation, which is able to increase up to 2.67 °C/min. with a high efficiency
(96.4%).

30
 However, high temperature is the most common problem for EV batteries and
power electronics present in EVs. In this sense, power electronics become very
important. The con- tinuous power density increase of electric motors requires
higher power to be delivered by electronics, which results in a higher heat
dissipation. To address this issue, Nonne- man et al. presented a comparison
between different cooling strategies under similar conditions. Unlike other existing
works, the authors accounted for other criteria, such as cost, complexity, and
practical feasibility to better design inverters for EVs. In the same line, other
authors, such as Mouawad et al. proposed cost effective and high integration, as
well as performance power electronic systems. In particular, they present a Silicon
Carbide Integrated Power Module that integrates multiple functional elements (i.e.,
semiconductor devices, DC-link capacitors, output filters, current sensing, and gate
driver), which is able to increase power density, improve electrical performance, and
reduce the costs without compromising thermal performance or reliability.

31
7 Challenges of the Research and Open
Opportunities
Although the development and evolution of the electric vehicles have undergone
a great growth, especially in the last years, in this section we comment on the
aspects that are still pending, or that can be interesting to explore to propose new
and enhanced solutions.
We have classified these opportunities into four fields: (i) the use of new
batteries technologies or manufacturing processes, (ii) the improvement and
optimization of the charging process, (iii) the use of communications and Artificial
Intelligence in electric vehicles for improving the mobility and for an efficient use of
the charging infrastructure, and, finally, (iv) eco charge (i.e., using green energy) and
sustainability issues that are related to EVs.

7.1 New Challenges and Technologies in Batteries

for EVs
Batteries are one the most important components of EVs, since they are one of
the most costly components of the overall cost of the vehicle, and batteries directly
affect the EV performance, as we have previously discussed in the Section 4.
The improvement in terms of durability, in charging densities, and in the charge
and discharge processes, have caused the use of multiple resources in the
development of new technologies that are able to surpass the current lithium-ion
batteries, which are the ones massively used in vehicles.
In our view, there is still work to do in this field, fundamentally due to its impact,
as the improvement of batteries can accelerate EVs success and the worldwide
deployment of these vehicles in a remarkable way. At present, new technologies
and components are being researched. Some of them are the following:
• Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). This kind of battery presents an energy
density of approximately 220 Wh/L, a great durability (they are able to withstand
between 2000 and 10,000 cycles) and tolerate high temperatures.
However, although this type of battery is starting to be tested in EVs , it still can be
found in an early stage of research and development. MIT researchers have
managed to reduce its weight and they have developed a prototype-cell that can be
completely charged in just 10–20 s, a reduced time if we compare it with the
necessary 6 min. for standard battery cells .
32
• Magnesium-ion (Mg-Ion). These batteries change the use of lithium over
magnesium, succeeding in storing more than double the charge and increasing its
stability. It is expected that this type of battery can have a 6.2 kWh/L energy density
, which would imply 8.5 times more than the best lithium batteries, which are
currently able to apply up to 0.735 kWh/L. Organizations, such as the Advanced
Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), Toyota, or NASA, are investigating this
type of battery.
• Lithium-metal. In these batteries, graphite-anode is replaced by a fine lithium-
metal layer. This kind of battery is able to store double of the power than a
traditional lithium battery . Solid Energy Systems, a MIT startup, have already
started to deploy this type of batteries in drones, and it is expected that they can be
included in EVs . Lithium-metal batteries have a high Coulombic efficiency (above
99.1%), withstanding more than 6000 charging cycles, and, after 1000 cycles they
maintain an average Coulombic efficiency of 98.4% .
• Lithium-air (Li-air). This kind of battery needs a constant supply of oxygen to
conduct the reaction with the lithium. They were initially proposed in the 70s,
although it was not until recently that have started to be developed and improved.
It is expected that its specific energy reaches around 12 kWh/kg (almost 45 times
the current of lithium), which would imply being at the same level as the fuel .
• Aluminum-air. Batteries that are developed with this technology produce
electricity from the reaction of oxygen with aluminum. Their main advantage is that
this type of battery reaches very large energy densities, attaining 6.2 kWh/L [103],
which allows obtaining a high autonomies (up to 1600 km) . The price of this kind of
battery is decreasing, currently positioning in 300 e/kWh , and their advantage is
that they are recyclable.
• Sodium-air (Na2O2). The company BASF created a Sodium-air battery with an
energy density of 4.5 kWh/L . In electric vehicles, this type of battery can multiply
the autonomy of the current lithium batteries at least thirteen times . A great
advantage of this type of batteries is that sodium is the sixth more abundant
element in our planet.
• Graphene. Graphene is a material that is formed by pure carbon, which has a
high thermal conductivity and it is extremely light (a one square meter blade weighs
0.77 mg). One of the major assets of graphene-based batteries is that they barely
heat, enabling fast or ultra-fast charges without significant power losses due to heat.
Graphenano, a Spanish company, has created a graphene battery that, added to a
GTA Spano vehicle (900 hp), has been able to travel 800 km . In a high power plug,

33
 this battery could be charged in only 5 min. This kind of battery is in an early phase
of development, although there exist prototypes of graphene batteries with a
specific power of 1 kWh/kg, and it is expected to reach 6.4 kWh/kg soon .
We consider that the technology is able to increase the autonomy of EVs and
consider- ably reduce the time that is required for a complete charge will be the one
that will finally succeed in the market.

7.2 Improvements in the Charging Process

In this section, we focus on the charging process, a key aspect regarding battery
vehicles, and it also crucial in the field of electric vehicles, as it is highly important to
facilitate users charging process, enabling EVs to reach longer distances.
One of the most important issues when charging an electric vehicle is the
connector. The American and Japanese markets bet on the connectors that were
proposed by the J1772 standard, while the European vehicles use the ones that
were suggested by the IEC-62196. Although these markets are quite different and
separate,
this fact is not desirable and it can cause difficulties for users when charging their
vehicles; purchasing adapters can be required, thereby increasing the cost of Electric
Vehicles, and sometimes introducing safety risks.
This problem also occurs in fast charging points. As we have previously discussed
in Section 5.2, there currently exist three types of standard connectors to conduct
fast charges:
(i) the CCS included in the J1772,
(ii) the CHAdeMO added in the IEC-62196, and
(iii) the GB/T. In addition, we should also consider the one used by Tesla in its
superchargers.
Although Tesla, for instance, has bet on the fact that some of its vehicles have
more than one type of connector, we consider it more important to progress in the
creation of a unified standard, which would allow for charging all of the vehicles
through a universal connector when considering the differences in the energy
systems of the different regions. We consider that this universal connector will help
EV drivers, but, especially, it will have a significant environmental impact.
Another aspect that can revolutionize the charging process is applying intelligent
algorithms to optimize the charges, either reducing the cost, or improving the use
of the electrical infrastructure. Currently, the charging process usually starts just in

34
the moment in which the vehicle is connected to the charging point (as it is typically
known as Plug & Charge); however, the price of electricity varies throughout the day
in most countries, so the charging start could be adapted to significantly reduce the
charging cost by avoiding the periods of high demand (where the economic cost is
higher). The implementation of intelligent plugs could help EVs to gain more market
share over the internal combustion engine vehicles. Although there are initial works
and proposals in this area , we consider that there are still several open issues and
potential works to be done in this field, as the use of communications between the
vehicles and the electric infrastructure, as well as the new technologies based on
Artificial Intelligence (e.g., Deep Learning techniques or Optimization Strategies), will
enable highly enhanced charging processes, as well as significantly reducing the
economic cost.
As for community or public parking lots, we consider that using adaptive charging
techniques can also be very useful, since the available infrastructure can be limited
to simultaneously power all charging points. According to this, smart load balancing
systems that are able to intelligently and efficiently manage the charging points
should be proposed. The reasoning behind this is to be able to satisfy the charging
needs of crowded scenarios without investing in new power infrastructure.
Finally, we must consider wireless charge, as an alternative to the conventional
charg- ing technologies, since it enables charging EVs batteries while driving. In fact,
wireless power transfer (WPT) is very convenient because of its flexibility and
comfort. Capacitive power transfer (CPT) and inductive power transfer (IPT) are the
two wireless charge modes. However, it is important to note that IPT is the most
commonly used, as it can be applied to many gap distances and power levels. By
contrast, CPT, although it has been shown to be valid for kilowatt-power-level
applications, it is only suitable for small gap power transfers.
In addition, there exist three different types of wireless charges when
considering their context:
(i) stationary charging, when the vehicle is parked,
(ii) opportunistic charging, when the vehicle is stopped for a short period of time,
(e.g., in a traffic light),
(iii) dynamic charging, when the vehicle is moving along a dedicated charging lane .
Related to wireless charging, Manshadi et al. present the advantages of wireless
charging stations in terms of electricity costs and congestion in the electricity
network. Dai et al. provide a critical comparison of IPT and CPT for small gap
applications, wherein the theoretical and empirical limitations of each approach are

35
established. In par- ticular, they compare the two approaches in terms of power
level, gap distance, operational frequency, and efficiency. Focusing only on CPT, Li et
al. presented a family of compensation topologies to achieve constant-voltage or
constant-current output in CPT- based charges.
The successful and effective deployment of wireless electric vehicles charging
requires the development of cost effective, high performance, and high integration
power electronic systems. In that sense, Nohara et al.propose a miniaturized
wireless EV charger with a high power-factor drive and natural cooling structure that
incorporates the simple quasi-resonant single-ended inverter. Their approach
significantly reduces the weight and volume of the converter while solving the
problem of power factor and cooling. Other authors aim to greatly extend the EV
operating range by exploiting the wireless charge capabilities. For example, Wang et
al.propose a dynamic wireless charging system that is able to fully switch the
vehicle’s driving power to wireless charging while the vehicle is driving on the
charging area. More specifically, the proposed system can dynamically adjust the
voltage value of the transmitting end or the equivalent load resistance value of the
electric vehicle.
Although this technology is very promising (for instance, the use of dynamic
charging would increase the driving range, even reducing the size of the battery
packs), current high associated costs, and the lack of a unique and universal
standard make wireless charges an unfeasible alternative to traditional wired
charging process in the short term.

7.3 Communications and AI in Electric Vehicles

In order for electric vehicles to completely turn into the predominant mean of
transport in our cities and roads, diverse factors will necessarily have to come
together, as previously examined.
Obviously, the development that is undergoing during the last years, in terms of
autonomy, power, technology, and comfort, is helping buyers to consider EVs as an
actual possibility when purchasing a new vehicle. Although the price is slightly
higher (in some models, the difference with respect to the combustion engine
version engine is notable), the purchasing aids and the reduced tax schemes are also
helping to reduce the existing gap.
However, there exist other aspects that are also essential, but they still need to
be improved to lead the way to electric vehicles. The worldwide deployment of EV

36
charging stations is the first of such aspects. Up to now, in the majority of countries,
the number of charging points available is rather scarce, which certainly stops
buyers. We consider that greater effort is needed to improve the charging
infrastructure. Additionally, the time that is necessary to completely charge the
batteries of these vehicles must be considerably reduced, so that users view electric
vehicles as more attractive. Fortunately, we believe that the use of vehicular
communications and Artificial Intelligence (AI) can catalyze the actual
implementation of the new more ecological and sustainable transport.
Wireless communication networks will allow vehicles to be provided with a
commu- nication system that enables communications capabilities among vehicles
(V2V) and the infrastructure (V2I). In addition, the use of algorithms that are based
on AI will provide certain intelligence to the vehicles, and it will open up to countless
new opportunities that will revolutionize the future transport systems.
We can find several proposals, based on Artificial Intelligence, related to different
EV areas, such as energy efficient routing, better and smarter charges, or battery
thermal management. Regarding to efficient routing, Masikos et al. introduce a
novel machine learning-based methodology for energy efficient routing. Their
approach is able to predict the energy consumption for the different road segments
that constitute the actual or potential vehicle routes. Alesiani and Maslekar address
the problem of finding the routes for a fleet of electric vehicles. Their proposal not
only considers the battery limit of the vehicle, but also the concurrent use of
charging stations along the route while using an evolutionary genetic algorithm with
learning strategy.
As for smarter charges, Sugii et al. propose a genetic algorithm-based scheduling
method for charging multiple EVs. In particular, this approach can determine the
power curve and electric power load levering. Additionally, it can reduce the
capacity of the charging equipment and its initial cost. Panahi et al. propose the
use of ANNs to forecast daily load profile of individual EVs and fleets, as user habits
is one of the most important issues in EV charges. More specifically, they use
historical data to predict electricity demand and better coordinate the charges.
Related to battery thermal management, Park et al. propose the use of Artificial
Neural Networks (ANNs) to improve the thermal management system and reduce
the total energy consumption. The proposal allows for maintaining the battery
temperature within an acceptable range. Karimi et al. analyze the relationship
between battery thermal behavior and design parameters. In particular, their
numerical analysis show that a cooling strategy that is based on distributed forced

37
convection can provide uniform temperature and voltage distributions within the
battery pack at different discharge rates.
The combined use of communications and AI will promote the appearance of new
solutions that:
(i) facilitate the charging process of batteries (by providing an early booking of the
charging point, automatic power balancing capabilities, adaptive charges that are
based on the context, etc.),
(ii) improve the power generation process to satisfy the great electric demand on
the grid that will arise (by offering predictions of necessary power in every moment,
mobility analysis of the EVs, etc.), and
(iii) speed up the transition process of assisted driving, to complete autonomous
driving.
Subsequently, we are very close to the advent of the Internet of EVs concept
(IoEVs), which will certainly change dramatically the way in which we move, but it
will also open us a new world of research possibilities, including new applications
and services.

7.4 Eco Charge and Sustainability

Electric vehicles have appeared as a model of sustainability and respect to the
environ- ment, due to the fact they do not emit harmful substances to the air, unlike
conventional internal combustion vehicles. Such sustainability is not only limited to
the usage of hybrid or electric vehicles, but also their design, the prime materials
used in the manufacturing of these vehicles, and the energy footprint during its use,
as well as the subsequent recycling of their components influencing the circles of
sustainability.
However, these ideas are changing due to the appearance of several studies that
have questioned the sustainability and environmental impact of EVs . In particular,
three important stages should be taken into account:
(i) their fabrication process,
(ii) the usage throughout their lifetime, and
(iii) their disposal and recycling process.
Regarding the EV production, some studies consider that it can require more than
twice as much energy to produce an electric car as compared to a conventional one,
especially due to the batteries production. More specifically, the mining and
processing minerals required to manufacture EV batteries (e.g., lithium, copper,

38
cobalt, manganese, and rare earths like neodymium), as well as battery
manufacturing with current technology, requires from 350 to 650 Megajoules per
kWh . In addition, each kWh of battery capacity involves from 150 to 200 kg of CO2
emissions. This means, for example, that producing a 22 kWh BMW i3 battery emits
almost 3 tons of CO2.
As for the usage of EVs, one key point is the high amount of electricity that is
required to charge these vehicles’ batteries, especially when they will be widely
deployed . Moreover, such power demand would indirectly harm the environment,
depending on the electric power source generation. Although EVs do not emit
climate-damaging greenhouse gases and NO2, the required electricity could be
produced by fossil-fuel power plants, and thus limit the supposed climate benefits.
For example, almost half of the electricity generated in Germany comes from coal
and gas . Hence, the use of renewable energies for manufacturing and charging
electric vehicles is a key aspect. Especially for charges, this kind of power (mainly the
solar and wind power) could be stored to be used in high demand periods or for
cheapening the charging prices .
Concerning the infrastructure that is needed for EVs deployment, and trying to
propose more eco-friendly approaches, Bhatti et al. summarize all of the aspects
related to EVs charging focusing on the use of solar photovoltaic modules. More
specifically, they analyze the requirements of grid powered photovoltaic EV
charging, including its economic and environmental impact. Similarly, Calise et al.
present a novel paradigm for sustainable mobility that is based on EVs, photovoltaic
energy, and energy storage systems, including a comparison to the conventional
grid-to-vehicle approach. Particularly, they demonstrate that, during the summer,
solar energy can cover an important amount of the total energy demand.
Regarding the EV disposal, once the batteries’ lifetime has ended, they can be an
environmental hazard, and correct recycling is essential for the successful
implementation of this transportation technology. Recycling provides a good
opportunity to reduce the life cycle costs, enabling the recovery of high-value
materials .
Finally, electromobility could also present some drawbacks. The high sales of EVs,
mainly in countries, such as Norway, is the result of governments’ economic
incentives. However, some of these incentives can have adverse effects (e.g., the
exemption of toll charges has significantly reduced toll revenue ). Moreover, there
have been 3.6% less public transportation passengers than the same quarter last
year, according to the National statistical institute of Norway . Although this issue

39
might be due to several factors, we consider that these data can be directly related
to impressive growth of EV sales in this country, since EV economic advantages and
higher comfort can result in a reduction of public transport usage.

40
8 Conclusions
In this paper, we analyzed the types of EVs, the technology used, the advantages
with respect to the internal combustion engine vehicles, the evolution of sales
within the last years, as well as the different charging modes and future
technologies. We also detailed the main research challenges and open
opportunities.
Regarding EVs, batteries are a critical factor, as these will determine the vehicle’s
autonomy. We analyzed several kinds of batteries, according to these features. We
also presented the possible technologies that can be used in the future, such as the
graphene, which is expected to be a solution that enables the storage of higher
amounts of power, and charge in shorter periods of time. The EV could also benefit
from this type of technology, reaching higher ranges, something that could help its
adoption by drivers and users.
The development of batteries with higher capacities will also favor the use of the
fastest and most powerful charging modes, as well as better wireless charging
technologies. The creation of a unique connector that can be globally used is
another aspect that could benefit the deployment of electric vehicles. The EV will
play a highly important role in the future Smart Cities, and having different charging
strategies that can adapt to the users’ needs will be of special relevance. Therefore,
future BMS should consider the new scenarios that were introduced by new
batteries and Smart Cities requirements.

41
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