ME 430 Internal Combustion Engines

Engineering Fundamentals of Internal

Combustion Engines

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ

Gazi University
Department of Mechanical Engineering

1
 ME 430 Internal Combustion Engines

Lecture Notes for the Undergraduate Course

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ

Gazi University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2023-2024 Spring

fatihaktas@gazi.edu.tr
Office : 454

https://avesis.gazi.edu.tr/fatihaktas

2
ME 430 – Internal Combustion Engines

Chapter 5
Air and Fuel Induction

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ

3
Copyright © Gazi University, Permission required for reproduction or display.
CONTENTS

• Intake Manifold
• Volumetric Efficiency of SI Engines
• Intake Valves
• Variable Valve Control
• Fuel Injection
• Carburetors
• Supercharging and Turbocharging
• Summary
4
INTAKE MANIFOLD
The intake manifold is a system designed
to deliver air to the engine through pipes to
each cylinder, called runners.

• The inside diameter of the runners

must be large enough that a high flow
resistance and the resulting low
volumetric efficiency do not occur.

• On the other hand, the diameter must

be small enough to assure high air
velocity and turbulence, which
enhances its capability of carrying fuel
droplets and increases evaporation and
air–fuel mixing.
5
 INTAKE MANIFOLD
• The length of a runner and its diameter
should be sized together to equalize,
as much as possible, the amount of air
and fuel that is delivered to each
separate cylinder.
• Some engines have active intake
manifolds with the capability of
changing runner length and diameter
for different engine speeds.
• At low speeds, the air is directed through longer, smaller diameter
runners to keep the velocity high and to assure proper mixing of air
and fuel.

• At high engine speeds, shorter, larger diameter runners are used,

which minimizes flow resistance but still enhances proper mixing.

• The amount of air and fuel in one runner length is about the amount
that gets delivered to one cylinder each cycle. 6
INTAKE MANIFOLD

7
INTAKE MANIFOLD
• To minimize flow resistance, runners should have no sharp bends,
and the interior wall surface should be smooth with no protrusions
such as the edge of a gasket.
• Fuel is added to inlet air somewhere in the intake system—before
the manifold, in the manifold, or directly into each cylinder. The
further upstream the fuel is added, the more time there is to
evaporate the fuel droplets and to get proper mixing of the air and
fuel vapor.
• However, this also reduces engine volumetric efficiency by
displacing incoming air with fuel vapor.
• Early fuel addition also makes it more difficult to get good cylinder-
to-cylinder AF consistency because of the asymmetry of the
manifold and different lengths of the runners.

8
INTAKE MANIFOLD
• It is found that when fuel is added early in the intake system, the
flow of fuel through the manifold occurs in three different manners:
• Fuel vapor mixes with the air and flows with it. Very small liquid fuel
droplets are carried by the air flow, smaller droplets following the
streamlines better than larger droplets.
• With a higher mass inertia, liquid particles will not always flow at the
same velocity as the air and will not flow around corners as readily,
larger droplets deviating more than smaller ones.
• The third way fuel flows through the manifold is in a thin liquid film
along the walls. This film occurs because gravity separates some
droplets from the flow, and when other droplets strike the wall where
the runner executes a corner.

9
INTAKE MANIFOLD
• Gasoline evaporates unevenly, leading to inconsistent air-fuel
mixture in cylinders.

• This inconsistency can cause engine knocking, limiting the usable

fuel octane.

• The problem worsens with varying throttle settings.

• Multipoint port fuel injection can reduce these issues by

providing individual fuel input to each cylinder.

10
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
It is desirable to have maximum
volumetric efficiency in the intake of
any engine. This will vary with engine
speed, as shown in Fig, which
represents the efficiency curve of
reciprocating engines.

There will be a certain engine speed

at which volumetric efficiency will be
maximum, decreasing at both higher
and lower speeds. There are many
physical and operating variables that
shape this curve.

11
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Fuel
• Naturally aspirated engines lose volumetric efficiency due to fuel
displacing air.
• Carburetors and throttle body injection (early fuel addition) have
lower efficiency due to early fuel vaporization.
• Multipoint injection (late fuel addition) has better efficiency as fuel
vapor displaces air only near the intake valve.
• Direct injection (after intake valve closes) experiences no efficiency
loss from fuel.
• Larger intake runners with cooler operation further improve
efficiency in late fuel addition engines.

12
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES

13
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Heat Transfer—High Temperature
• Hotter intake systems reduce volumetric efficiency by heating
incoming air (denser air = more efficient).

• Carburetors/throttle body injection manifolds are heated to aid fuel

evaporation (trade-off).

• Lower engine speeds worsen this effect due to longer air residence
time.

• Water injection in intake manifolds can improve efficiency by cooling

incoming air (WWII aircraft engines as an example).

14
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Valve Overlap
• Valve overlap (both valves open briefly at TDC) at low engine
speeds can reduce volumetric efficiency:

1. Exhaust gasses pushed back into intake displace fresh air.

2. This effect is worse at low RPM due to longer overlap duration and
lower intake pressure.

3. Intake/exhaust valve layout and compression ratio also influence

this issue.

15
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Fluid Friction Losses

• Friction from air moving through the intake system (filter, carburetor,
etc.) causes pressure to drop.

• This pressure drop reduces the amount of air entering the engine
cylinders, affecting engine performance (volumetric efficiency).

• Viscous resistances that cause pressure drop, increases with air

speed, leading to greater pressure loss at high engine speeds.

16
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Strategies to Reduce Pressure Loss:

• Smoother Design: Using smooth walls, avoiding sharp bends, and

ensuring close-fitting parts in the intake manifold helps minimize
friction.

• Eliminating Carburetors: Modern engines often use fuel injection

which eliminates a restriction point.

• Multi-Valve Technology: Increasing the intake valve area (using

multiple valves per cylinder) allows for more airflow and reduces
restriction.

17
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Trade-Off Between Flow and Mixing:
• While larger intake runners reduce pressure loss, they also
decrease flow velocity.

Lower velocity hinders:

• Evaporation: Slower moving fuel droplets have less chance to fully
vaporize before combustion.
• Mixing: Slower air and fuel movement leads to less complete
mixing, potentially creating uneven combustion.
• Cylinder Distribution: Uneven flow can result in some cylinders
receiving a richer or leaner mixture than others, affecting
performance and emissions.

18
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Design Considerations:
• Intake runner shape and valve design are crucial in creating a swirl
pattern for air-fuel mixture.

This swirl helps with:

• Evaporation: Increased turbulence promotes better fuel droplet
interaction with air, aiding evaporation.
• Mixing: The swirling motion creates a more homogenous air-fuel
mixture throughout the cylinder.
• Engineers strive to find a balance between minimizing pressure loss
(larger runners) and achieving good in-cylinder mixing (swirl
pattern).

19
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Choked Flow
• The extreme case of flow restriction is when choked flow occurs at some
location in the intake system. As air flow is increased to higher velocities,
it eventually reaches sonic velocity at some point in the system. This
choked flow condition is the maximum flow rate that can be produced in
the intake system regardless of how controlling conditions are changed.

The result of this is a lowering of the

efficiency curve on the high-speed end
in Fig. Choked flow occurs in the most
restricted passage of the system,
usually at the intake valve or in the
carburetor throat on those engines with
carburetors.

20
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Closing Intake Valve After BDC

Intake Valve Timing and Airflow: Closing the intake valve (IVC) at the
right moment is crucial for maximizing air entering the cylinder.

Pressure Differential: Even at the bottom of the intake stroke (BDC), the
pressure inside the cylinder is lower than the intake manifold due to air
flow resistance.

Ideal IVC Timing: The valve should close exactly when the pressure in
the cylinder equalizes with the intake manifold to capture the
maximum amount of air.

21
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES

Early Closure: Closing the valve before pressure equalization cuts off
incoming air, reducing volumetric efficiency.

Late Closure: Closing the valve after pressure equalization pushes

some air back out during compression, also hindering volumetric
efficiency.

22
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Impact of Engine Speed on IVC: Ideal IVC timing depends on engine
speed.

High Speed: Greater air flow at high RPM creates a larger pressure
drop across the intake valve. To compensate, the valve should close
later in the cycle for optimal performance.

Low Speed: Lower air flow at low RPM results in less pressure drop. To
maximize air intake, the valve should close at an earlier point in the
cycle.

23
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
Intake Tuning
Pressure Waves and Tuning: Pulsating airflow in the intake manifold
creates pressure waves that can be tuned for optimal performance.
Wave Reinforcement: When pressure waves from the intake runner
and valve line up (in phase), they boost air pressure entering the
cylinder, improving volumetric efficiency (air intake).
Passive vs. Active Systems:
Passive Systems: Traditional engines have fixed-length runners tuned
for a specific RPM, leading to inefficiency at other speeds.
Active Systems: Modern engines use variable-length intake manifolds
or multi-path runners with control valves to adjust runner length based
on engine speed, optimizing airflow across the RPM range. Electronic
engine management systems (EMS) control these active intake
systems for optimal performance.

24
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SI ENGINES
EGR
EGR for Reduced Emissions: Modern engines recycle exhaust gas
(EGR) into the intake system to lower combustion temperatures and
reduce harmful nitrogen oxide emissions.
EGR Trade-Off: While beneficial for emissions, EGR comes with
drawbacks:

Reduced Volumetric Efficiency:

Displaced Air: EGR gas takes the place of some fresh air entering the
engine, reducing air intake.
Lowered Air Density: Hot EGR gas heats the incoming air, making it
less dense and reducing oxygen available for combustion.

25
INTAKE VALVES

• Valve Types: Most engines use spring-loaded poppet

valves, while rotary and sleeve valves are less
common.

• Valve Materials: Valves and seats are typically made

from high-strength steel or occasionally ceramic.

• Ideal vs. Reality: Ideally, valves would open and close

instantly, but mechanical limitations necessitate
slower, smoother operation to minimize wear and
noise.

26
INTAKE VALVES
• Camshaft Design: Camshaft lobes are designed for smooth, quick
valve actuation while minimizing mechanical stress.

• Future of Valve Actuation: Replacing camshafts with electronic

controls could enable much faster valve opening and closing for
improved engine performance (FREEVALVE technology)

• Camshaft Placement: Early engines had side-mounted camshafts

with complex linkage systems. Modern engines have overhead
camshafts (OHC) in the cylinder head for better efficiency.

27
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL

28
INTAKE VALVES
The distance that a valve opens (dimension l in Fig.) is called valve lift and is
generally on the order of a few millimeters to more than a centimeter,
depending on the engine size. The valve lift is usually about 5 to 10 mm for
automobile engines.
Generally,

Flow through a poppet valve.

When flow separates from the
surface at the corners, the
actual flow area is less than
the geometric passage area
of the valve. The ratio of these
areas is called the discharge
coefficient. Valve diameter is
ds and valve lift is l.
29
INTAKE VALVES
The angle of the valve surface at the interface with the valve seat is
generally designed to give minimum flow restriction. As air flows around
corners, the streamlines separate from the surface, and the actual
cross-sectional area of flow is less than the flow passage area, as
shown in Fig. The ratio of the actual flow area to the flow passage area
is called the valve discharge coefficient:

Shape and angle of valve surfaces are

sometimes designed to give special mass
flow patterns to improve overall engine
efficiency.

30
INTAKE VALVES
• On many newer engines with overhead valves and small fast-burn
combustion chambers, there is often not enough wall space in the
combustion chambers to fit the spark plug and exhaust valve and
still have room for an intake valve large enough. For this reason,
most engines are now built with more than one intake valve per
cylinder.

• Two or three smaller intake valves give more flow area and less flow
resistance than one larger valve, as was used in older engines. At
the same time, these two or three intake valves, along with usually
two exhaust valves, can be more easily fit into a given cylinder head
size with enough clearance to maintain the required structural
strength. (see Fig.)

31
 INTAKE VALVES
Possible valve arrangements for a modern overhead valve engine. For a given
combustion chamber size, two or three smaller intake valves will give greater
flow area than one larger valve. For each cylinder, the flow area of the intake
valve(s) is generally about 10 percent greater than the flow area of the
exhaust valve(s).

(a) Most early overhead valve engines (1950s–1980s) and a few modern engines.
(b) Most present-day automobile engines. (c) Some modern high-performance
automobile engines.

32
 INTAKE VALVES
• Mass flow through the intake valve
into a cylinder is shown in Fig.
• Reverse flow can result when valve
overlap occurs near TDC.
• Reverse flow out of the cylinder will
also occur at lower engine speeds
as the intake valve is closing aBDC,
as previously explained.

Flow of air–fuel mixture through the intake

valve(s) into an engine cylinder. Possible
backflow can occur during valve overlap
and when the intake valve closes after
33
BDC.
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• In recent years several forms of variable valve timing control have
appeared in automobile engines. These systems allow for more
efficient engine operation by varying the times at which valves open,
duration of opening, and valve overlap period.
• The systems are called by various names in automobile advertising
and technical literature: variable valve control (VVC), variable valve
actuation (VVA), variable valve event (VVE), variable valve system
(VVS), variable timing control (VTC), and others.
• In addition to variable timing, the most modern systems also allow for
variable valve lift.

34
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL

35
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL

36
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• High Engine Speed:

• Intake Valve: Open earlier, longer duration, possibly higher lift for
increased airflow.
• Exhaust Valve: Higher lift, open earlier for better blowdown, close
slightly later.
• Overlap: Increased overlap is acceptable due to higher intake
manifold pressure and shorter cycle time.

37
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• Low Engine Speed:

• Intake & Exhaust Valves: Open later, close earlier due to longer
cycle time and lower air-fuel needs.
• Overlap: Minimal overlap is desirable to prevent excessive exhaust
gas recirculation displacing fresh air-fuel mixture.
• Intake Valve Lift: Reduced lift to maintain high flow velocity for
proper mixing.
• Fuel Mixture: Richer mixture is needed for good combustion at low
speeds.

38
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• Dual-Lobe Camshaft System:

• Uses two cam lobes per valve: one for high speed and one for low
speed.
• Camshaft can move axially to switch between lobes based on
engine speed.
• Offers optimization at two specific engine speeds.

39
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• Advanced Variable Cam Timing (VCT):

• Employs a single camshaft with wider, three-dimensional lobes.

• Cam profile contacting the follower varies along the camshaft axis.
• Camshaft position adjusts with engine speed to utilize the optimal
profile.
• Offers a wider range of timing and duration control compared to the
dual-lobe system.
• Requires more complex controls.

40
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• The most modern systems of VVC have no camshafts and use
electrical solenoids to open and close valves directly, or through an
electromechanical or electrohydraulic connection.
• Operating without valve springs, actuators open and close valves
very fast, and can have soft closings. This allows the use of ceramic
valves which can tolerate much higher temperatures.
• A typical system uses an electronically controlled double-acting
hydraulic actuator to open and close the valves. When this is done,
the temperature, viscosity, and compressibility of the hydraulic fluid
must be considered.
• Using more powerful computers in the EMS, these systems have the
potential of almost infinite variability in controlling valve timing,
duration, and lift, including cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder
variations.

41
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• Benefits of advanced Variable Valve Control (VVC) systems:

• Beyond Basic Engine Control: Variable valve timing allows for

much more than just optimizing airflow at different engine speeds.

• Throttle Elimination and Efficiency Gains: Precise valve control

can eliminate the need for a throttle valve, enabling operation in the
more efficient Miller cycle. This reduces pumping losses and
improves fuel economy.

42
VARIABLE VALVE CONTROL
• Fine-Tuning Power and Economy: Varying valve lift and timing
across multiple intake valves allows for optimized airflow at all
speeds, improving low-speed torque, high-speed power, and overall
efficiency.
• Stratified Charge and Efficiency: Advanced VVC can even create
a layered air-fuel mixture (stratified charge) for better combustion
and lower emissions.
• Variable Engine Cycles: In low-power situations, the system can
switch to a more efficient six-stroke cycle with additional pumping
strokes for improved fuel economy without sacrificing power output
(achieved by running at higher RPM).

43
FUEL INJECTION
• Fuel injectors are nozzles that
inject a spray of fuel into the
intake air.
• They are normally controlled
electronically, but mechanically
controlled injectors, which are
cam operated, also exist (Fig.).
• A metered amount of fuel is
trapped in the nozzle end of the
injector, and a high pressure is
applied to it, usually by a
mechanical compression
process of some kind.

44
FUEL INJECTION
• At the proper time, the nozzle is opened, and fuel is sprayed into the
surrounding air.

• The amount of fuel injected each cycle is controlled by injector

pressure and time duration of injection.

• An electronic fuel injector consists of the following basic

components: valve housing, magnetic plunger, solenoid coil, helical
spring, fuel manifold, and pintle (needle valve).

45
FUEL INJECTION
• When not activated, the coil spring holds the plunger against its
seat, which blocks the inlet flow of fuel.

• When activated, the electric solenoid coil is excited, which moves

the plunger and connected pintle. This opens the needle valve and
allows fluid from the manifold to be injected out the valve orifice.

• The valve can either be pushed opened by added pressure from the
plunger, or it can be opened by being connected to the plunger,
which then releases the pressurized fuel.

46
FUEL INJECTION

47
FUEL INJECTION
• Each valve can have one or several orifice openings, each having a
diameter of about 0.2 to 1.0 mm.

• The fuel exits the injectors at velocities greater than 100 m/sec, and
flow rates of 3 to 4 gm/sec.

• In mechanically controlled injectors there is no solenoid coil, and the

plunger is moved by the action of a camshaft.

48
FUEL INJECTION
• Some systems have a single fuel pump (common rail) supplying
the injectors of all cylinders or a bank of cylinders.
• The fuel can be supplied at high pressure with the injectors acting
only as a metering device. Other systems supply the fuel to the
injectors at lower pressure, and the injector must then increase the
pressure and meter the flow.
• There is generally a return line from each injector for excess fuel.
Some systems have a fuel pump for each cylinder, with the pump
and injector sometimes built as a single unit.
• Engine operating conditions and information from sensors in the
engine and exhaust system are used to continuously adjust AF,
timing, injection pressure, and injection duration.
• Engines with pump systems and controls on each cylinder can be
more finely adjusted than those with single-pump systems for the
entire engine or bank of cylinders.
49
FUEL INJECTION
• Only moderate injector pressure is required for SI engines using
port injectors or throttle body injectors (e.g., 200–300 kPa absolute),
which inject into the lower-pressure engine intake system.
• Injectors used for injecting directly into the combustion chamber (DI)
operate at much higher pressures, up to 10 MPa.
• Higher pressure is required because injection operates against high
cylinder pressure and because finer droplet size is needed due to
the very short allotted evaporation time.
• Many SI engine direct injection systems that use gasoline (GDI)
inject a combination of fuel and air (Figs. 9, 10, 11).
• With these injectors, air is injected through a separate orifice during
and immediately after the fuel injection. This type of injection greatly
speeds the atomization, vaporization, and mixing of the fuel
droplets, which is needed because of the extremely short time
period (less than 0.008 sec at 3000 RPM).
50
FUEL INJECTION

51
FUEL INJECTION

52
FUEL INJECTION

53
FUEL INJECTION
• Injection pumps deliver fuel volumetrically and must be controlled to
compensate for thermal expansion of the fuel at different
temperatures, and for compressibility at different pressures.
• The amount of fuel injected for each cycle can be adjusted by
injection duration time, which is on the order of 1.5 to 10 ms. This
corresponds to an engine crank angle rotation of 10° to 300°,
depending on immediate operating conditions.
• The duration of injection is determined by feedback from engine
and exhaust sensors.

54
FUEL INJECTION
• Sensing the amount of oxygen in the exhaust is one of the more
important feedbacks in adjusting injection duration for proper air–fuel
ratio.
• This is done by measuring the partial pressure of the oxygen in the
exhaust manifold.
• Other feedback parameters include engine speed, temperatures,
air flow rate, and throttle position.
• Engine start-up, when a richer mixture is needed, is determined by
coolant temperature and the starter switch.
• Various ways of determining air flow rate include pressure drop
measurement and hot-wire flow sensors. Hot-wire sensors
determine air flow rate by the cooling affect on hot electrical
resistors.

55
FUEL INJECTION - Multipoint Port Injection Systems
• Most modern automobile SI
engines have multipoint port fuel
injectors.
• In this type of system, one or more
injectors are mounted by the intake
valve(s) of each cylinder.
• They spray fuel into the region
directly behind the intake valve,
sometimes directly onto the back
of the valve face.
• Contact with the relatively hot valve
surface enhances evaporation of
the fuel and helps cool the valve.

56
FUEL INJECTION - Multipoint Port Injection Systems
• The injectors are usually timed to
spray the fuel into the quasi-
stationary air just before the
intake valve opens.

• High liquid spray velocity is

necessary to assure evaporation
and mixing with the air. Because
injection starts before the intake
valve is open, there is a
momentary pause in the air
flow, and the air velocity does not
promote the needed mixing and
evaporation enhancement.

57
FUEL INJECTION - Multipoint Port Injection Systems
• When the valve then opens, the fuel vapor and liquid droplets are
carried into the cylinder by the onrush of air, often with the injector
continuing to spray.
• Any backflow of hot residual exhaust gas that occurs when the
intake valve opens also enhances the evaporation of fuel
droplets.
• Each cylinder has its own injector or set of injectors which give a
fairly constant fuel input cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder,
depending on the manufactured quality of the injector parts. Even
with perfect control of the fuel flow, there would still be variations in
AF due to the imperfect air flow cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-
cylinder.

58
FUEL INJECTION - Multipoint Port Injection Systems
• Multipoint port injector systems are better than carburetors or throttle
body injector systems at giving consistent AF delivery. Some
multipoint systems have an additional auxiliary injector or injectors
mounted upstream in the intake manifold to give added fuel when
rich mixtures are needed for startup, idling, WOT acceleration, or
high RPM operation.
• Because there is such a short duration (time and length) after fuel
injection for evaporation and mixing to occur, it is essential that port
injectors spray very tiny droplets of fuel. Ideally, droplet size could
be varied with engine speed, smaller at higher speeds, when real
time is shorter.

59
FUEL INJECTION - Multipoint Port Injection Systems

• Intake systems with multipoint injectors can be built with

improved volumetric efficiency. There is no venturi throat to create a
pressure drop as with a carburetor. Because little or no air-fuel
mixing occurs in most of the intake manifold, high velocity is not as
important, and larger diameter runners with less pressure loss can
be used.
• There is also no displacement of incoming air with fuel vapor in the
manifold.

60
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines
• Gasoline direct-injection
engines generate the air/fuel
mixture in the combustion
chamber.
• During the induction stroke,
only the combustion air
flows through the open
intake valve.
• The fuel is injected directly
into the combustion
chamber by special fuel
injectors.

61
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines
Major Objectives of the GDI Engine
 In some conditions, ultra-low fuel consumption betters that of even
diesel engines
 Superior power to conventional MPI engines

62
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines
• Transition of Fuel Supply

63
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines
• Volumetric Efficiency

64
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines
• Increased Compression Ratio
The cooling of the air inside the cylinder by the vaporization of fuel has
another benefit: minimizing engine knocking. This allows a high
compression ratio of 12 and thus improves combustion efficiency.

65
FUEL INJECTION - Direct Injection Systems for SI Engines

66
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
Carburetors vs. Fuel Injection

• Past Dominance: Carburetors were the main way to add fuel to

engines for many years.
• Simple Beginnings, Complex End: Started simple but became
expensive and intricate by the 1980s.
• Modern Replacement: Fuel injectors are now the preferred method
due to better control and simplicity.
• Cost-Effective Choice: Carburetors remain in some small engines
(lawnmowers, model airplanes) due to lower manufacturing cost.
• Gradual Shift: Even small engines are transitioning to fuel injection
due to stricter emission regulations.

67
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
• Carburetors are engine
elements that mix gasoline
and air in the appropriate
amount and ratio.
• A simple carburetor
consists of a constant-level
tank, fuel nozzle, venturi
nozzle, and throttle, as
shown in the figure.
• In order to ensure that the
fuel can be easily sucked
from the nozzle, it is
necessary to reduce the
pressure around the
outlet port of the fuel
nozzle. This process is
done through the venturi
nozzle.
68
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
• The pressure drop is greatest in
the narrowest part of the venturi
nozzle. The outlet port of the fuel
nozzle is placed in this section.
• The relationship between air
velocity in the nozzle, air pressure
and nozzle cross-section can be
calculated with the help of
Bernoulli and the continuity
equation.
• If pressure losses caused by
friction are not taken into account,
the pressure between the inlet and
outlet of the venturi nozzle will be
equal.

69
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
Calculation of Venturi Nozzle
The magnitudes at the entrance section of the venturi nozzle are
indicated by the index (1) and the magnitudes at the narrowest section
are indicated by the index (2), and if the flow is assumed to be
isentropic, the energy equation can be written as:

If elevation differences are ignored (z1=z2), the speed at the nozzle

entrance is neglected (V1a=0), and air is accepted as an ideal gas
(dh=CpdT), the energy equation is:

70
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
For isentropic flow:

71
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors

• Ca: Air flow coefficient of the venturi nozzle

• In reality, the amount of air passing through the venturi nozzle
is slightly lower than under ideal conditions. For this reason, the
air flow coefficient Ca has been defined.
• The airflow coefficient is around 0.80. A2a and ρ2a show the area of
the narrowest section of the nozzle and the density of the air in that
section, respectively.

72
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors

73
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors

74
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
Calculation of fuel nozzle
If the fuel level in the constant
level tank is shown as "1" and
the tip of the nozzle is shown
as "2" and the Bernoulli
equation is applied between
these two points:

75
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors

Cf: is the flow coefficient of the fuel nozzle. It is around 0.75.

76
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
• Fuel/air mixture ratio obtained from a simple carburetor:

77
 FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors
Exp: A gasoline engine operating in a place at sea level, with a
temperature of 20 ℃, and consuming 200 grams of fuel for 1 horsepower
per hour, has 12 horsepower. The pressure in the narrowest section of the
venturi nozzle is 85 kPa.
a) What is the speed of the gas in the carburetor venturi during full
operation of this engine?
b) Considering that the engine needs to use 16 kg of air to burn 1 kg of
fuel: find the diameter of the venturi section.
c) Find the fuel speed in the nozzle (The density of the fuel is 750 kg/m3)
d) Find the diameter of the nozzle cross - section

78
FUEL INJECTION - Carburetors

79
• SUPERCHARGING AND TURBOCHARGING
• INTAKE FOR CI ENGINES

80
• Video link 1:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m5AviXgca88&ab_channel=Motors
erviceGroup
• Video link 2:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XV4NavUIznc&t=1s&ab_channel=d
riving4answers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YouKc9E4uE&ab_channel=C
ARinfo3d%28En%29

81