EM295

Principles of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering
Basic Concepts
Funda ERGÜN YARDIM
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Gazi University
fundaergun@gazi.edu.tr

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 Course Textbooks

1. Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, J. David Irwin, J. Wiley.

2. Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, G.

Rizzoni, Mc Graw Hill.

3. Electric Circuits, James W. Nilsson and Susan A. Riedel,

Prentice Hall.

4. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Charles Alexander and

Matthew Sadiku, McGraw Hill.

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 Evaluation

Quantity Percentage (%)

Miderms 2 60
Quiz - -
Homework - -
Project - -
Term Paper - -
Laboratory Study - -
Other - -
Final Exam 1 40

Note: The semester grade point average will be determined by 60 percent of the midterm
average and 40 percent of the final exam.
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 Weekly Schedule

1. Basic concepts: Electric Charge, Electric Current, Voltage, Power, Energy.

2. Circuit Elements: Active and Passive Circuit Elements.
3. DC Circuits: Resistors, Series and Parallel Connections, Ohm’s Law, Loop
4. Equations, Node Voltage Equations, Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems,
5. Linearity, Superposition Principles, Source Tranformation.
7. AC Circuits: Alternating Current Concept, Frequency, Phase, Amplitude
8. Concepts, Complex Numbers, Condansators, Inductors, Complex Impedance,
9. AC Circuit Analysis, Input Impedance.
10. Electric Machines: DC and AC Current Motors.
11. Analog Elektronics: Diods, Transistors, Opamps, Rectifiers, Mixers.
13.
14. Digital Elektronik: Boolean arithmetic, Logical circuit elements, Logical Circuit
15. Design.
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Note: Weeks 6 and 12 are estimated midterm weeks.
 Motivation

Electrical circuits seem to be everywhere!

5
 What is an Electric Circuit?

• The most elementary concept in electric systems is the electric

circuit.

• An electric circuit is a closed current path formed by properly

connecting various circuit components.

• Typical circuit or electrical components that we will see in this

year:
batteries or voltage sources, current sources,
resistors, switches, capacitors, inductors, diodes,
transistors, operational amplifiers (Opamps), …

• The purpose of simple or complex electrical circuits is to transfer

electrical energy from one point to another.

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 A Simple Circuit
• A simple electrical circuit consists of a battery or a
generator, a load and a conductor (conducting wire)
as seen in the figures on the left:

1. Battery or Generator is an active circuit element

that feed the circuit, that is, produces direct current.
2. Load is a circuit element that consumes the electric
energy it receives from source and converts it to
another type of energy. For example; a lamp
converts the electrical energy it receives from the
Conductor
source into light energy.
Lamp
3. Conductor (Conducting wire) provides connection
between the source and load.
4. Switch is the element that turns the circuit on and
off. It doesn’t have to be active in the circuit.
Battery
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 A More Complicated Circuit

A Radio Receiver
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 System of Units

• The International System of Units or SystèmeInternational des Unités (SI),

also known as metric system uses 7 mutually independent base units. All other
units are derived units.
Quantities Symbol Units
Electric Charge Q, q Coulombs (C)
Electric Current I, i Amperes (A)
Voltage V, v Volts (V)
Power P, p Watts (W)
Energy W, w Joules (J)
SI Units for some quantities in electric circuits
Note: In this course, quantities will be denoted in capital letters
for DC circuits (time-invariant circuits) and small letters for Ac
SI Base Units circuits (time-varying circuits).
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SI Prefixes

SI prefixes used in electric systems

are shown in blue.

For example:

I=0,01A=10mA
P=0,00005W=50 × 10−6 𝑊 = 50𝜇𝑊

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Review of Basic Circuit Concepts
• Electric Charge is the basis for describing all electrical
phenomena. Thus, the most elementary quantity in electric
circuits is an electric charge.

• Every matter is made up of atoms. Inside an atom, there is

negative charge on electrons, positive charge on protons and
no charge on neutrons. Electric charges are carried by electrons
and protons. Energy transfer is provided as a result of the
movement of electrical charges. Then, electric charge is the
electrical property of the atomic particles that matter contains.

• Finally, electric charge definition can be made as fallows:

• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which

matter consists and is measured in coulombs (Charles Augustin
de Coulomb (1736-1806) a French Scientist)

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 Charge

• Electron carries - 1.602  10 -19

• Proton carries a positive charge of the same size.

• Thus, 1C of charge is carried by 1/ 1.602  10 -19 = 6.24  10 18 electrons

• Laboratory values of charges are more likely to be a fraction of a Coulumb (e.g.,

pC, nC, C, or mC).

• Law of conservation of charge: charge can neither be created nor destroyed,

only transferred. (This is a law in classical physics and may not be true in some
odd cases!. We are not dealing with those cases anyway.)

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 A Material Classification
The materials are classified into 3 according to the ease of movement of the charge.

1. Conductor: a material in which charges can move to neighboring atoms

with relative ease.
– One measure of this relative ease of charge movement is the electric
resistance of the material
– Example conductor material: metals and carbon
– In metals the only charged particles that can move are electrons
2. Insulator: a material that opposes the charge movement (ideally infinite
opposition, i.e., no charge movement)
– Example insulators: Dry air and glass
3. Semi-conductor: a material whose conductive properties are somewhat in between
those of conductor and insulator
– Example semi-conductor material: Silicon with some added impurities
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 Electric Current (Charges in Motion!)
• Electrons that are normally stationary in conductive materials begin to move when a generator
is connected to the circuit (generators electrical force to charges). Thus, the charges gain
electrical energy and this is transmitted along the conductive wire. As a result, electric current
forms as a result of the splashing movement of negative charges (electrons) from atom to
atom.

• Current: net flow of charge across any cross section of a conductor, measured in Amperes
(Andre-Marie Ampere (1775- 1836), a French mathematician and physicist)

• Current can be thought of as the time rate of change of charge.

Mathematically, the relationship is expressed as
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑠
𝑑𝑡

• Note: 1A means 1C of charge change per second or a charge of 1C per

second passes through any point in the circuit.
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 Electric Current
• In this case, the amount of charge passing through a certain
time interval 𝑡0 − 𝑡1 is found as follows:
𝑡1
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑥 dx
𝑡0
• Originally scientists (in particular Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
an American scientist and inventor) thought that current is only
due to the movement of positive charges.

• Thus the direction of the current was considered the direction of

movement of positive charges.

current
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 Electric Current
• In reality in metallic conductors current is due to the movement of electrons, however,
we follow the universally accepted convention that current is in the direction of positive
charge movement. (direction of electron)
(direction of current)

• Two ways of showing the same current:

Note1: The direction of electric

current is determined by the
direction of motion of a positive
charge.

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 Current Flow
Note2: Negative current in one direction is equal to positive current in the opposite
direction.

Note3: The current is displayed as positive or negative according to the selected direction.
(a) It means that a charge of 2C per second
pass from left to right from any point on
the conducting wire.

(b) It means that a charge of 3C per second

pass from right to left from any point on
the conducting wire.

Note4: Therefore, it is not sufficient to simply give the amplitude of the variable
representing the current. It is also necessary to indicate the direction of the current.

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 Two Important Types of Current
• Direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time as shown in figure (a)
below. DC current sources are batteries and accumulators found in cars, flashlights,
computers.

• Alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time as shown in figure
(b) below. It is the type of current used by household items such as refrigerators, washing
machines and ovens in every house.

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Magnitude of Some Typical Currents

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 Voltage (Electrical Potential)
• Voltage (electromotive force, or electrical potential) is the energy required to move a
unit positive charge through a circuit element or from one point to another of a circuit
element, and is measured in Volts (Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745-1827) an Italian
Physicist).

dW
v
dq
• Similar to electric current , there are two important voltages: DC and AC.

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Typical Voltage Magnitudes

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 Voltage
• “Voltage between two points in a circuit is the difference in energy level of a unit
charge located at each of the two points.

• Some examples:

(a) The voltage between points A and B is 2V and point A is positive potential (high
energy level) and point B is low potential (low energy level). Voltage drops 2V from A to
B or rises 2V from B to A. (𝑉1 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 or 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −2𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
(b) The voltage between points A and B is 5V and point B is positive potential and point A
is low potential. Voltage rises 5V from A to B or drops 5V from B to A. (𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −5𝑉 =
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 or 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 5𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
(c) The voltage between points A and B is 5V and point B is positive potential and point A
is low potential. The circuits in (a) and (b) are two different representations of the same
voltage.
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 Voltage Polarity
• The plus (+) and minus (-) sign are used to define voltage polarity.

• The assumption is that the potential of the terminal with (+) polarity is higher than
the potential of the terminal with (-) polarity by the amount of voltage drop.

Note: It is not possible to know at first in which direction the

current or voltage will (+) result. Therefore, random reference
directions are determined for current or voltage when performing
circuit analysis. After the analysis, if the current or voltage of
interest is (+), the chosen reference direction is correct; if the
current or voltage is (-), the direction of the current or voltage is
actually opposite to the selected reference direction.

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 Equivalent Circuits
• Figures (a) and (b) are two equivalent representation of the same
voltage:

• Both show that the potential of terminal a is 9V higher than the

potential of terminal b.
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 Power
• The rate of change of (expending or absorbing) energy per unit time, measured in
Watts (James Watt (1736-1819) a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer)

𝑑𝑤(𝑡)
• Mathematically; 𝑝 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 ×𝑖 𝑡

𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑤(𝑡) 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑝 𝑡 = . = where 𝑣 𝑡 = and 𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

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 Energy
• The change in energy from time 𝑡0 to time 𝑡1 can be found by interprating above
equations:
𝑡 𝑡
• 𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑡 1 𝑝 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 1 𝑣 𝑡 . 𝑖 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
0 0

c c c
c
i i i
𝐼 + r
i
r 𝐼 − r r
𝑉1 = 2𝑉 c
u 𝑉1 = 2𝑉 c 𝑉1 = 2𝑉 c 𝑉1 = 2𝑉 c
u
u
i
𝐼 +
u
i i 𝐼 − i
t t t
t

Voltage between A and B is Voltage between A and B is This is equivalent to This is equivalent to
2V and A is higher potential 2V and A is higher potential driving the positive driving the positive
point. If a unit positive charge point. If a unit positive charge from point B. charge from point A.
is driven from A to B, this charge is driven from B to A, Because negative Because negative
charge supplies energy to the the circuit supplies energy to current in one current in one
circuit. And when it reaches this charge . And when it direction is equal to direction is equal to
point B, its energy is 2J less reaches point A, its energy positive current in positive current in
than its initial energy. is 2J more than its initial the opposite the opposite
energy. direction. direction.
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 Energy
Example: The circuit on the left side of the AB
c
i terminals supplies the examined circuit
r
𝐼=2A Examined
c 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 3𝑉 element. A charge of 2A, that is, 2C per
circuit
u
i element
second, flows through the examined circuit
t element from A to B. Therefore, the
examined circuit element absorbs 6J of
energy per second.

Example:
c
The examined circuit element supplies the
i
r
circuit on the left side of the AB terminals . A
Examined
c 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 3𝑉 circuit charge of 2A, that is, 2C per second, flows
u
i 𝐼=2A element through the examined circuit element from
t
B to A. Therefore, supplies the circuit on the
left side of the AB terminals absorbs 6J of
energy per second.
Note1: Negative current in one direction is equal to positive current in the opposite direction.
Note2: Negative voltage in one direction is equal to positive voltage in the opposite direction. 27
A Classification of Circuit Components
• One common classification for circuit components is to group
them in two major groups:

1) Passive components or passive elements

Components or elements that absorb power.

2) Active components or active elements

Components that are not passive! that is, components that
deliver power.

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 Passive Sign Convention
• For calculating absorbed power: The power absorbed by any
circuit element with terminals A and B is equal to the voltage
drop from A to B multiplied by the current through the element
from A to B, i.e., P  Vab  I ab I ab

a b
+ -
Vab
• With this convention if P  0 , then the element is absorbing
(consuming) power. Otherwise (i.e.,P  0 ) is absorbing negative
power or actually generating (delivering, supplying) power.

• For example;

• P=20W↔ 20W absorbing power (or -20W supplying power)

• P=-20W↔ 20W supplying power (or -20W absorbing power)

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 Passive Sign Convention
• According to passive sign convention; the variable for voltage 𝑣(𝑡) is defined as the
voltage across the element with the positive reference at the same terminal that the
current variable 𝑖(𝑡) is entering as shown in figure below.

c
𝑖(𝑡)
i
r
c
u 𝑣(𝑡)
i
t

• Next, the sign of the current entering from the positive terminal is determined.

• The product of 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖 𝑡 , with their attendent signs, will determine the magnitude
and sign of the power.

• If the sign of the power is positive (that is, current is positive), power is being absorbed
by the element, if the sign is negative (that is, current is negative), power ia being
supplied by the element. 30
 Tellegan’s Theorem
• Principle of Conservation of the Power: The algebraic sum of
the powers absorbed by all elements in a circuit is zero at any
instance of time (ΣP=0). That is, the sum of absorbed powers is
equal to the sum of generated powers at each instance of time.

• This principle is also known as Tellegan’s theorem. (Bernard

D.H. Tellegan (1900-1990), a Dutch electrical engineer)

• Similarly, one can write the principle of conservation of energy.

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 Passive Sign Convention
• Calculate the power absorbed or supplied by each of the
following elements:

-3A

-3A

12W absorbed power 12W absorbed power -12W supplied power -12W supplied power
or -12W supplied power or -12W supplied power or 12W absorbed power or 12W absorbed power
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 Example
• Given the two diagrams shown below, determine whether the
element is absorbing or supplying power and how much.

-4A

The power is P=2V.(-2A)=-4W The power is P=2V.(-4A)=-8W

4W supplying power 8W supplying power
-4W absorbing power -8W absorbing power

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 Example
• Determine the unknown voltage or current in the following
figures:
+ -8A

− -5A 8A
P=-20W ↔ The (-) sign indicates that the power P=40W ↔ The (+) sign indicates that the power
is supplied by the circuit element. Therefore, is absorbed by the circuit element. Therefore,
negative current flows from the (+) potential positive current flows from the (+) potential
terminal. Since the current flowing through A is terminal. Since the positive voltage terminal is
positive, negative current flows through B. In B, the current flowing through B must be
this case, (+) voltage point is B. From P=V.I, the positive. From P=V.I, the current is 8A, positive
voltage is 4V, B is positive terminal and A is current flows from B to A. Thus, the current
negative terminal. flows from A to B is negative.
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 Circuit Elements
• Circuit components can be broadly classified as being either
active or passive.

• An active element is capable of generating energy.

– Example: current or voltage sources

• A passive element is an element that does not generate energy,

however, they can either consume or store energy.
– Example: resistors, capacitors, and inductors

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 Circuit Elements
• Some very important active elements:

• Independent voltage source

• Independent current source
• Two dependent voltage sources
• Two dependent current sources

Note: In this course we will consider all sources as ideal.

• Independent voltage source: is a two terminal element that maintains a specified

voltage between its terminals regardless of the current through it and other circuit
elements in the circuit. This is indicated by the v-i characteristic.
v

i
v-i characteristic for independent voltage source
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 Circuit Elements
• Note: İdeal independent voltage sources can supply or absorb
any current.

• Symbol for independent voltage source

(a) Used for constant (dc) or time-varying voltage (ac)
(b) Used for constant voltage (dc)

i(t) I

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 Circuit Elements
Independent current source: is a two terminal element that maintains a specified current
regardless of the voltage across its terminals and other circuit elements in the circuit. This
is indicated by the v-i characteristic.
v

i
v-i characteristic for independent current source

• Symbol for independent voltage source

c
i
+ r
c Note: All circuit elements (passive and active) are
i(t) v(t)
-
u characterized by the voltage between the terminals
i
t and the current flowing through them.

38
 Circuit Elements
• Note: Equivalent representation of ideal independent current
sources whose current i(t) is maintained under all voltage
requirements of the attached circuit:

39
Common Voltage and Current Source Labeling

• Note: Passive sign convention also applies to voltage and current sources.

40
 Example
• Determine the power absorbed or supplied by the elements of
the following network:

Note: As can be seen

from the result, the sum
of the absorbed powers
is equal to the sum of
the supplied powers.

+2A current enters from the (+) terminal of the elements 1 and 2. Therefore, the elements
absorb 12W and 36W respectively.
𝑃1 = 6𝑉. 2𝐴 = 12𝑊
𝑃2 = 18𝑉. 2𝐴 = 36𝑊
-2A current enters from the (+) terminal of independent voltage source. Therefore, this
voltage source supplies 48W. (48W supplied power or -48W absorbed power)
𝑃24𝑉 = 24𝑉. −2𝐴 = −48𝑊

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Dependent (Controlled) Sources
• An ideal dependent (controlled) source is an active element
whose quantity is controlled by a voltage or current of another
circuit element.

• Dependent sources are usually presented by diamond-shaped

symbols:

42
 Dependent (Controlled) Source
• There are four types of dependent sources: : two dependent voltage sources and two
dependent current sources
• Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
If the voltage of the
i(t) dependent voltage source is
controlled by the voltage of
+ any element in the circuit,
v(t)
+
-
vs(t)=v(t) this source is a voltage
- controlled voltage source.

• Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) If the voltage of the

i(t) dependent voltage source is
controlled by the current
+ flowing through any element
v(t) + in the circuit, this source is a
vs(t)=i(t)
- current controlled voltage
- source.
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Dependent (Controlled) Sources
• Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
i(t) If the current of the
dependent current source is
+
controlled by the voltage of
v(t) is(t)=v(t) any element in the circuit, this
- source is a voltage controlled
current source.

• Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

If the current of the dependent
i(t) current source is controlled by
the current flowing through any
+
element in the circuit, this
i(t) is(t)=i(t) source is a current controlled
- current source.

44
 Example: Power Calculation
• Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component in the following circuit.

𝑃1 = 5𝑉. −8𝐴 = −40𝑊 → 40𝑊 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑃2 = 2𝑉. 8𝐴 = 16𝑊 → 16𝑊 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑃3 = 3𝑉. 3𝐴 = 9𝑊 where 𝑉𝑝3 = 0.6 ∗ 𝐼 = 0.6 ∗ 5 = 3𝑉

( 𝑝3 → Current controlled voltage source) →
9𝑊 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑃4 = 3𝑉. 5𝐴 = 15𝑊 → 15𝑊 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Note: The sum of absorbed powers is
equal to the sum of supplied powers.

45
 Example
• Use Tellegan’s theorem to find the current I0 in the following circuit:

𝑃1 = 6𝑉. 𝐼0 = 6𝐼0 𝑊
𝑃2 = 12𝑉. −9𝐴 = −108𝑊
𝑃3 = 10𝑉. −3𝐴 = −30𝑊
𝑃4𝑉 = 4𝑉. −8𝐴 = −32𝑊 (independent voltage source)
𝑃2𝐴 = 6𝑉. −2𝐴 = −12𝑊 (independent current source)
𝑃8𝐼𝑥 = 16𝑉. 11 = 176𝑊 where 𝑉8𝐼𝑥 = 8 ∗ 𝐼𝑥 = 8 ∗ 2 = 16𝑉
(Current controlled voltage source)

According to Tellegan’s theorem: The algebraic sum of the

powers absorbed by all elements in a circuit is zero:

6𝐼0 − 108 − 30 − 32 − 12 + 176 = 0 ↔ 6𝐼0 = 6

𝐼0 = 1𝐴

46
 Example
• Find the power that is absorbed or supplied by the circuit elements below.

𝑃1 = 6𝑉. 2𝐴 = 12𝑊

𝑃14𝑉 = 14𝑉. 2𝐴 = 28𝑊 (independent voltage source with 14V)

𝑃2𝐴 = 20𝑉. −2𝐴 = −40𝑊 (independent current source with 2A)

𝑃1 = 8𝑉. 4𝐴 = 32𝑊

𝑃2𝐼𝑥 = 8𝑉. 4𝐴 = 32𝑊 (Current controlled voltage source with 2 𝐼𝑥 V)

where 𝑉𝐼𝑥 = 2 ∗ 𝐼𝑥 = 2 ∗ 4 = 8𝑉

𝑃4𝐴 = 16𝑉. −4𝐴 = −64𝑊 (independent current source with 4A)

47
 Example
• Find the power absorbed or supplied by each element.

𝑃1 = 4𝑉. 4𝐼𝑥 = 16𝐼𝑥 𝑊

𝑃2 = 8𝑉. 4𝐴 = 32 𝑊
𝑃3 = 20𝑉. 2𝐴 = 40 𝑊
𝑃4 = 20𝑉. 𝐼𝑥 = 20𝐼𝑥 𝑊

𝑃12𝑉 = 12𝑉. −4𝐴 = −48𝑊 (independent voltage source)

𝑃4𝐼𝑥 = 12𝑉. −4𝐼𝑥 = −48𝐼𝑥 𝑊 where 𝐼4𝐼𝑥 = 4 ∗ 𝐼𝑥 𝐴 (Current
controlled current source)
𝑃1 = 16𝐼𝑥 = 32𝑊 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
According to Tellegan’s theorem: The algebraic sum of
𝑃4 = 20𝐼𝑥 = 40𝑊 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 the powers absorbed by all elements in a circuit is zero:

𝑃4𝐼𝑥 = −48𝐼𝑥 = −96𝑊 (96𝑊 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) 16𝐼𝑥 + 32 + 40 + 20𝐼𝑥 − 48 − 48𝐼𝑥 = 0 ↔ −12𝐼𝑥 = −24

𝐼𝑥 = 2𝐴

48
 Example
• Use Tellegan’s theorem to find the current Vx in the following circuit:

Using Tellegan’s Theorem;

24 + 2𝑉𝑥 + 32 + 18 − 48 − 24 = 0

2𝑉𝑥 = −2 ↔ 𝑉𝑥 = −1𝑉

𝑃1 = 12𝑉. 2𝐴 = 24𝑊
𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑥 . 2𝐴 = 2𝑉𝑥 𝑊
𝑃3 = 16𝑉. 2𝐴 = 32𝑊
𝑃9𝑉 = 9𝑉. 2𝐴 = 18𝑊 (independent voltage source with 9 V)
𝑃24𝑉 = 24𝑉. −2𝐴 = −48𝑊 (independent voltage source with 24 V)
𝑃12𝑉 = 12𝑉. −2𝐴 = −24𝑊 (independent voltage source with 12 V)

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 Example
• The charge that enters the BOX is shown below. Calculate and sketch the current flowing into
the BOX and the power absorbed by the BOX between 0 and 10 milliseconds.

50
 Example

𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
• As stated earlier, current is defined as the rate of change of charge: 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡

• So, the current values ​can be found by calculating the slopes of the load variation graph:
∆𝑞
• When the current is constant: 𝐼 = ∆𝑡

• 𝑖 𝑡 = 0; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 0𝑊
3×10−3 −1×10−3
• 𝑖 𝑡 = = 2𝐴 ; 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 ∗ 𝑖 𝑡 = 12𝑉 ∗ 2𝐴 = 24𝑊
2×10−3 −1×10−3
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 0; 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 0𝑊
−2×10−3 −3×10−3
• 𝑖 𝑡 = = −2.5𝐴 ; 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 ∗ 𝑖 𝑡 = 12𝑉 ∗ −2.5𝐴 = −30𝑊
5×10−3 −3×10−3
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 0; 5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 6𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 0
2×10−3 −(−2×10−3 ) 4 4
• 𝑖 𝑡 = = 𝐴 ; 6 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 9𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 ∗ 𝑖 𝑡 = 12𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = 16𝑊
9×10−3 −6×10−3 3 3
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 0; 𝑡 ≥ 9𝑚𝑠 ↔ 𝑝 𝑡 = 0𝑊

51
 Example
• Note1: As you can see; the current is zero during the time intervals when the load is constant.
The current is positive when the load is increasing and negative when the load is decreasing.

• Note2: At 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑚𝑠 and 6 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 9𝑚𝑠 time intervals, the box absorbs power. At 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5𝑚𝑠
time interval, the box supplies power.

52
 Example
The energy absorbed by the BOX in Fig. P1.19 is shown in the graph
below. Calculate and sketch the current flowing into the BOX between 0
and 10 milliseconds.

53
Notes

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