EXPERIMENT r

Tofind the value ofvfor different values of u in case ofa concave mirror and to
find the focal length.
APPARATUS
An optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement), concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles (one thin, one thick).a
knitting needle and a half metre scale.
THEORY

1= -1+ 1
From mirror formula, |

We have, f=
where, f=focal length of concave mirror.
u=distance of object needle from pole of the mirror.
V =distance of image needle from pole of the mirror.
Note. According tosign-convention, u and vhave negative values. Hence, fcomes negative.
RAY DAGRAM

M
Image

Object Needle
Image (thin)
Needle
(thick)
Fig. Focal length of a concave mirror.
FOC

PROCEDURE

Todetermine rough focal length

1 Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
building.
2. Goout in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or
white painted wall (screen) and
3. Obtain the inmage of the tree or the building on a
move the mirror forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This
will be equal to
4. Measure the
therough focal length of the mirror.
Note. Similar procedure is adopted for determining rough focallength
of aconvex lens.]
To set the mirror
bench and the two other uprights
5. Place fixed upright near zero end of the optical
(with lateral movement) near the other end.
keeping mirror face towards other
6. Clamp the holder with mirror in the fixed upright
end of the bench and surface perpendicular to its length.
the optical bench. (In final
7. Make mirror surface vertical using levelling screws of horizontal and parallel to the
adjustment, the principal axis of the mirror must be
optical bench).
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of mirror upright.
To set the object needle
in second upright.
9. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it
distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times
10. Move the object needle upright and clamp it ata
the obtained rough focal length of the mirror.
the
11. Adjust height ofthe object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through
pole of the mirror.
other end of the optical
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the image
bench. An inverted and enlarged image of the needle will be seen Tip of theupright
must lie in the middle of the mirror (If image is not seen, move object needle
away from the mirror).
13. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle
14.Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third upright and move the upright
near the other end of the optical bench.
15. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the
image when seen with right open eye.
16.Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated.The image tip and the image
needle tip have parallax.
17. Remove the parallax as described [Section 7.08 (6)). The parallax gets removed
tip-to-tip.
18.Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upright.
19. Record all the positions of the index marks in the table against observation 2.
 To determine index correction
20. Find index correction for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the object needlo
and also for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the image needle as described
4Section H0tot
21. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2and 1.
Repeat the experiment.
22. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2) in steps
of l cm to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment.
23. Record all the observations as given ahead.
Note. Order ofobservations, is kept, 3, 2, 1, 4, 5 and 6 to
 RESULT
The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from:

()feeatHength cateulated rom f U+ u

". Cm

uM (u - v) graph "... Cm

graph
and (i} tu -v) graph Cm.

PRECAUTIONs
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be
theoptical bench. horizontal and parallel to the central line of
2. The uprights should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed
4. To locate the position of the image between the needle I and image of the needle 0.
the eye should be at least 30 cm
needle. away from the
5. Tips of the object and image
the concave mirror.
needles should lie at the same height as that
of pole of
6. Index correction for u andv
should be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 149

EXPERIMENT 3
To find the focal length of a
between and l convex lens by plotting graphs between u and vor
u

APPARATUS

An optical bench with three

lateral movement), a convex lens uprights (central
with lens holder, twoupright
knitting needle and a half metre scale.
fixed, two outer upr1gnts mun
optical needles, (one thin, one thick)
a
THEORY

The relation between u, v

andf for a convex lens is,
1 1 1
’ f=
where, f= focal length of convex lens
u= distance of object needle fromn
optical centre of the lens
V=distance of image needle from
optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative
fcomes positive. value and v has positive value. Hence,

RAY DIAGRAM

esan:
B'

2F
A
2F
Object Image
Needle Needle
B

Fig. Focal length of convex lens.

PROCEDURE
Todetermine rough focal length
Lerdholder.
1. Mount the eoncavemiEFOt in mirroY
2. Goout in the open and face the mirotowards distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and
move the mirror forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
deny
 4. Measure the distance between the airo and the wall (screen). This will
the rough focal length of the Nairor on ) be equal to
To set the lens
5. Clamp the holder with lens in afixed upright and keep the upright at !50
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the cm mark
optical bench. length of the
7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.
To set the object needle
8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle
(0). Mount it in outer laterally m
able upright near zero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it
at a
times the obtained rough focal length of the lens. distance (in full cms) nearly 1:
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its
optical centre of the lens. tip lie on horizontal line through the
11. Note the position of the index mark on the
To set the image needle
base of the object needle upright.
12. With left eve closed, see with the
right open eye from the other end of the
bench. An inverted and enlarged image optical
image must lie in the middle of the lens. of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the
13. Mount the thick optical needle
end of the optical bench. (image needle) in the fourth upright
near the other
14. Adjust the height of the image
image when seen with right open needle so that its tip is seen in line with
eye. the tip of the
15. Move the eye towards right.
The tips will get separated. The
needle tip have parallax. image tip and the image
16. Remove the parallax tip to
17. Note the position of the tip.
18. Record the position of theindex mark on base of the image needle upright.
needle and the image needle index marks on the base of
in the table against upright of the lens, the object
To determine index
correction observation 2.
19. Find the index
correction
object needle and also for for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of
needle as described. distance between optical centre of the
lens and tip of the image
To get more observations
20. Move object needle
upright towards mirror in steps of
Repeat the experiment. 1 cm to get observation
2 and l.
21. Move object needle
of 1cm to get upright away from mirror (from
position of
22. Record all the observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment. observation 2) in steps
Note. Same as in observations as given ahead.
Experiment 1).
 iCate the graph.

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:
foeat tength,f=
2. (u - v) graph =...... Cm
3 1_1 graph = Cm

and 4. (u - vgraph =...... Cm.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of
the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least
30 cm away from the needle.
 3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image
of it is formed.
4. Index correction for uand vshould be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 AE ANSPARENT LIQUID

EXPERIMENT5
To determine angle of minimum deviation for ugiven prism by plotting a graph
betveen angle of incidenee and the ongle of deviation.
APPARATUS

Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil,

office pins, graph paper and a protractor. half-metre SCale,
THEORY

The refractive index (n) of the material of the

prism is given by,
sin A+ Dm
2
n =
A
sin
2
where, D. is angle of minimum deviation
and Ais angle of the prism.

DLAGRAM

N, N N
nimum
of inc:
35° Q40°
P2
gle a'
equal
X
ine X

nh

D3
P

P Kz K

T. T,

Fig. Refraction through prism at different angles.

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or
tape.
 nearly in the middle of
Draw astraight line XX' parallel tothe length of the paper the
paper.
suitable distances of about &5
3. Mark points Q,.Q.. Q.. . .onthe straight line XX at cm.
4. Draw normals N, Q,, N,Q, N,Q¡y ... on points Q,, 2 3 . as Shown in diagram
5. Draw straight lines R,Q,. R,Q.,, R,Q, .. making angles of 35°, 40°, ... 60° (W (write
value of the angles on the paper) respectively with the normals.
6. Mark one corner of the prism as Aand take it as the edge of the prism for all the
observations.
7. Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX and point Q, in the middle of
AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. Fix two or more office pin P, and P, vertically on the line R,Q,. The distance between
the pins should be 10mm or more.
10. Look the images of point P, and P, through face AC.
11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.
12. Fix two office pins P, and P, vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the
sees pins P, and P, and images of P, and P, in one straight line. open right eye
13. Remove pins P, and P, and encircle their pricks on
the paper.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q, Qo. ... for i= 40°,
..., 60°.
To measure D in different cases
15. Draw straight lines through points P, and
P, (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays
s,T,, S,T,, S,T, ...
16. Produce T,S,, T,S,, T,S, ... inward in the
incident rays R,Q,, R,Q,, R,Qa . at pointsboundary of the prism to meet produced
F,, F,, F, ...
17. Measure angles K,F,S,, K,F,S,, Kg,S,
18. Write values of these angles on ... These give angle of deviation D,, D,, D,:..
the paper.
To measure A
19. Measure angle BACin the
20. Record your observations.
boundary of the prism. This gives angleA.
RESULT

Ü)i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence(i) increases, the angie of deviation (D)
first decreases, attains a minimum value (D)and then starts increasing for further increase
m

in angle of incidence.
(iü) Angle of minimum deviation, D,, = ......
m

tüD Refractive index of the materiat of theprism,

PRECAUTIONS
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm.
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
SOURCESOF ERROR
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
 EXPERIMENT8

draue the 1-Veharacteristic cure ofa p-n junetion in forward bias and reverse
To
bias.

APPARATUS
a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance
Ap-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one
rheostat, one 0 3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50
and pieces of sand paper.
0-100 uA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires
THEORY PR
Forward-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode
is connected to positive
terminal of the battery then junction
terminal of a batteryandn-section isconnected to negative
forward current increases slowly
is saidto be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the
(0.2 V for Ge), the current increases
in the beginning and then rapidly. Atabout 0.7 V for Si diode
suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward
current increases rapidly, is
called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
negative
Reverse-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is connected to
positive terminal of
terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to
the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there isa very small reverse current flow,
which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently
high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which
breakdown ofjunction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is called zener breakdown
voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may starts from one volt to several hundred
volts, depending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.
SEMIC

DLAGRAM

Potential
+
Divider

3 V

K
Fig. p-n junction diode--forward biased

Potential
Divider
O+
Ot

50

Fig. p-n junction diode-reverse biased.

PROCEDURE
For forward-bias
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
tight.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and
voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mÀ).
3. Note least count and zero error of
(rheostat) near negative end and insert
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider
mA willgive zero reading.
the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter
forward-bias voltage (V) of
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a
0.1 V. Current remains zero.
or Ge diode. Current remains zero. (It
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3V).V
barrier of 0.3
1sdue to junction potential current.
Milli-ammeter records a small
I. Increase V, to 0.4 V.
8, Increase V. in stepsof 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current inereases
till V,becomnes 0.7 V.
Iirst slowlyand then rapidly, forward break.
9. Make V,= 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. Thisrepresents
down" stage.
10. If the V, increases bevond "forward breakdown" stage, the forward current does n
change much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
For reverse-bias
12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (uA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert the
key K. Voltmeter V and micro-ammeter uA will give zero reading.
16. Movethe contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage (V) 0f 0.5 V,a
feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase V in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly till V,R
becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make Vp = 25 V.The current increases suddenly. This represents "reverse break
down" stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.
19. Record your observat:ions as given ahead.
 RESULT

. unction resistance for forward-bias 40 ohms

Jinction resistañce for reverse-bias = 2 x 106 ohms.
PRECAUTIONS

OTen
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not
being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be
applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Thejunction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.
3. The terminals of battery may not be connected
properly.