Bapuji Educational Association ®

Bapuji Institute of Engineering & Technology, Davangere – 577004

An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Karnataka
Department of Mechanical Engineering
(For Private Circulation among 1st Year Students of BIET only)
Compiled By: Umesh.B.S. Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering drawing is the language of the engineers and technicians, therefore the intent of this
course is to introduce and equip the students with the basic principles of engineering drawing and
conventions of engineering graphical communication with the aid of computer software.
To enhance and acquaint with the basic knowledge, skills and capability to read, interpret and prepare
digital drawings by applying 2D techniques of Computer Aided Drafting.
To understand the concept of Orthographic projections and practice drawing the principal views of
Points, Straight Lines, Plane surfaces and Solids, using First angle projections
To understand and practice the concept of Isometric projections and Development of Lateral surfaces.

Module-2
 (8 hrs)
Isometric Projections: Isometric scale, Isometric projection of hexahedron (cube), right regular prisms,
pyramids, cylinder, cone, sphere, hemisphere and Frustum of pyramids and cone. Isometric projection of
combination of two simple solids.
Conversion of simple isometric drawings into orthographic views of simple machine components.
(8 hrs)

Module-5
 Module 1 (10 hours)
Introduction: (for CIE only)
Significance of Engineering drawing, BIS Conventions of Engineering Drawing, Sizes of
Drawing sheets, Dimensioning. Introduction to Orthographic projections, Principal Views and
Principal Planes of Projections, Four Quadrant system of Projection.
Introduction to Computer Aided Drafting software: Using all necessary Commands provided
for Drawing, Editing, Modifying, and Dimensioning, Text, etc. Brief introduction of 2D/3D
options

Significance of Engineering drawing:

Drawing: The term ‘Drawing’ can have different meanings depending on the content.
1. Art: A drawing is a visual representation created by making lines and marks on paper or
another surface, often using tools like pencils, pens, or charcoal, as shown in figures below

2. Technical: In technical drawing it refers to a precise and detailed graphical representation

of an object, machine or a system, used to communicate ideas, plans, and designs.
3. Engineering: In engineering a drawing is a detailed graphical representation of a design,
including specifications and dimensions. As shown in figures below.

Graphics is a visual communications language that includes images, text, and numeric information.

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Graphics communications using engineering drawings and models is a clear and precise language
with definite rules that must be mastered in order to be successful in engineering design.
Graphics communications are used in every phase of engineering design starting from concept
illustration all the way to the manufacturing phase.
Information regarding the size, shape, dimensions, tolerances and other manufacturing
/construction details are quickly communicated to the production / construction personnel in the
form of drawings prepared according to prescribed drafting standards
Working drawings are the set of technical drawings used during the manufacturing phase of a
product. They contain all the information needed to manufacture and assemble a product

Engineering Drawing: A drawing of an object which contains all necessary information like
actual shape, accurate sizes, and manufacturing methods etc, required for the construction of the
object is called Engineering Drawing.
It is an effective way of communicating technical ideas and it is an essential tool in engineering
design where most of the design process is graphically based. Engineering graphics is used in the
design process for visualization, communication, and documentation.
• Engineering Drawing is a graphical medium of technical expression –
It is called ‘Universal Language of Engineers’.
Example:
• Mechanical Engineering: Machine Drawing
• Civil Engineering : Building Drawing
• Electronics Engineering: Circuit Drawing.

. Building drawing : Civil Engineers

Machine Drawing : Mechanical Engineers

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 Circuit drawing: Electrical Engineer

Printed circuit Board & PCB drawing in Computer:

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Introduction to Computer aided Drafting:
Till recently in the engineering drawings have been produced, manually using drafting tools with
pen and pencil. Drafting tools used are shown below
Instruments used for Manual Drafting

Minidrafter Minidrafter fixed to Draftsman

Drawing Table

Set square Try Square Geometric Instruments

Drawing Table Buiding Drawing

Machine Drawing

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With the development of low-cost, computer it became possible to use computer in place of a
traditional drafting machine. The method of preparing the drawings by computers is known as
Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) or Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) as shown in
figures below.

Computer workstation Building Drawing by CAD Solid modelling and 2D

drawing by CAD

Orthographic Projections and Sections of solids

Solid Model of Machine vice Views of the Model 2D Drawing of the model

Few Softwares available for CAD: Solid Edge, Solidworks, AutoCAD, Fusion 360 etc.

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Drawing sheet size and scale:

Designation Dimensions in mm
Width x Height
A0 841 x 1189
A1 594 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4 210 x 297
A5 148 x 210
A6 105 x 210
A7 74 x 105
A8 52 x 74
A9 37 x 52
A10 26 x 37

ISO Standard paper sizes (ISO216)

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Drawing Sheet Layout:
Standard layouts of drawing sheets are specified by the various standards organizations.
The figure shows the layout of a typical sheet, showing the drawing frame, a typical title
block, parts list (bill of materials) and revision table.

Title Block: The title block is normally placed in the bottom right of the drawing frame, and it
should contain the following information:
• the name of the company or organization
• the title of the drawing
• the drawing number, which is generally a unique filing identifier
• the scale
• the drawing size
• the angle of projection used, either first or third, generally shown symbolically
• the signature or initials of the draftsman, checker, approving officer, and issuing officer, with
the respective dates
• the material of the part
• the revision number
• the sheet number for multi-sheet drawings other information as required
(tolerances, surface finish, etc.
In addition to the information above, for drawings produced using CAD software, it it is
highly recommended to have the following information in the title block:
• the name of the CAD software used and its version
• the name of the drawing file
• the name of the source part or assembly file
• the units of the dimensions (if the drawing is mistakenly printed on a different paper size, the
scale becomes meaningless)
Material or Parts List (Bill of Materials): If the drawing contains a number of parts, or if it is an
assembly drawing, a tabulated parts list is added to the drawing. The bill of materials is usually
placed at the bottom right of the drawing frame, just above the title block.
• The bill of materials should give the following information:
• the part number
• the part name
• the quantity required
• material specifications
• the drawing number of each individual part
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 Conventions of Lines:

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 Conventions of Materials

Dimensioning:

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 Orthographic Projections

Orthographic projections are drawings where the projectors, the observer or station point
remain parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection.

Principal Planes of Projections: Orthographic view of an object is projected on plane of

projection. Following are the three Principal planes of projections
1. Horizontal Plane (HP)- Top view or Plan is projected on HP
2. Vertical Plane (VP)- Front view or Elevation is projected on VP
3. Profile Plane(PP)- Profile view or side view is projected on PP
There are two profile planes (i) Right Profile Plane (RPP), (ii) Left Profile plane(LPP)

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Quadrant System : Projections of an object can be obtained by placing the object in any of the
four quadrants.

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 1. In 1st quadrant: An object is located Above HP & In front of VP, resulting projections is
known as 1st Angle Projections
2. In 2nd quadrant: An object is located Above HP & Behind VP, resulting projections is
known as 2nd Angle Projections
3. In 3rd quadrant: An object is located Below HP & Behind VP, resulting projections is
known as 3rd Angle Projections
4. In 4th quadrant: An object is located Below HP & In front of VP, resulting projections is
known as 4th Angle Projections

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 Projections of Points
Point
A point usually represented by a dot is a dimensionless geometrical entity that has a position but
no magnitude. Whereas in computer aided engineering drawing the point has dimension but it is
not considered or neglected.

The projections of a Point are obtained by locating the given point in each of the four quadrants.
1. Projection of a Point in the First Quadrant:
When a point is located in first quadrant, it will be on or above HP and infront of the VP.
Point ‘A’ is located in 1st Quadrant
2. Projection of a Point in the Second Quadrant:
When a point is located in second quadrant, it will be on or above HP and behind the VP.
Point ‘B’ is located in 2nd Quadrant
3. Projection of a Point in the Third Quadrant:
When a point is located in third quadrant, it will be on or below HP and behind the VP.
Point ‘C’ is located in 3rd Quadrant
4. Projection of a Point in the First Quadrant:
When a point is located in fourth quadrant, it will be on or below HP and infront of the
VP.Point ‘D’ is located in 4th Quadrant.

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System of Notation
1. The actual points in space are denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc.
2. The front view (FV) of the points are denoted by their corresponding lower-case letters with
dashes as a', b', c', etc.
3. The top view (TV) of the points are denoted by their corresponding lower-case letters without
dashes as a, b, c etc.
4. The side view (SV) of the points are denoted by their corresponding lower-case letters with
double dashes as a", b", c" etc.
5. Projectors are always drawn as continuous thin lines and Points with Dot.

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Problems for Practice: Following problems to be solved both by Sketching & Computer
Aided Drafting.
1) Draw the projections of the following points on the same XY line, keeping convenient
distance between each projector. Name the quadrants in which they lie.
A-30 mm above HP & 35 mm in front of VP.
B-40 mm above HP & 25 mm behind VP
C-30 mm below HP& 25 mm behind VP.
D-35mm below HP & 30mm infront of VP.

2) Draw the projections of the following points on the same XY line, keeping convenient
distance between each projector. Name the quadrants in which they lie.
E-40 mm above HP & on VP.
F-35 mm below HP & on VP
G-On HP & 30 mm in front of VP
H-On HP & 40 mm behind VP

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 3) Draw the three principal views of a point A which is 40 mm infront of VP, 50 mm above
HP and 30 mm infront of LPP.

4) A point B is 30 mm above HP, 50 mm behind VP and 45 mm of RPP. Draw the three

principal views of the point.

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 5) Draw the three principal views of a point C which is 40 mm below HP, 50 mm behind VP
and 30 mm behind of RPP.

6) Draw the three principal views of a point D which is 30 mm below HP, 40 mm infront of
VP and 30 mm behind of LPP.

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 7) A point M is 30 mm infront of VP, and on HP and 30 mm from RPP. Draw the three
principal views of the point.

8) A point N is 25 mm behind VP, and on HP and 20 mm from LPP. Draw the three principal
views of the point.

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 9) A point P is on VP, 40 mm above HP and 30 mm from RPP. Draw the three principal views
of the point.

10) A point Q is on VP, 30 mm below HP and 20 mm from LPP. Draw the three principal views
of the point.

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 11) A point P is on HP and 35mm in front of VP. Another point Q is on VP and below HP. The
line joining their front view makes an angle of 30° to XY line, while the line joining their
top view makes an angle of 45° with XY line. Find the distance of the point Q from HP.

12) A point G is 25 mm below HP & is situated in the third quadrant. Its shortest distance from
the intersection of reference lines XY and X1Y1 is 45 mm. Draw its projections and find
its distance from VP.

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 13) A point M is on HP & 30 mm in front of VP. Another point N is 20 mm below HP and 35
mm infront VP. The distance between their projectors measured parallel to XY line is 50
mm. Find the distance between front views of the points M & N.

Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

1. A point S is in the first quadrant and equidistant of 50 mm from all the three principal
planes.. Draw all the three views of the point.
2. A point R is 25mm above HP and 20mm in front of VP. Another point S is on HP and
30 mm behind VP. The distance between their projectors measured parallel to the line
of intersection of VP and HP is 50mm. Find the distance between the top views of
points R and S.
3. A point A is 20 mm above HP & 25 mm in front of VP. Another point B is 25 mm
behind VP and 40 mm below HP. Draw their projections when the distance between
their projectors parallel to XY line is zero mm. Add the right side view only to point B.
4. A point 30 mm above XY line is the front view of three points P, Q and R. The top view
of R is 40 mm behind VP, the top view of Q is on XY line and top view of point P is 45
mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of the points & state the quadrants in which
the points are situated.
5. A point A is 40 mm in front of VP and is situated in the forth quadrant. Its shortest
distance from the intersection of HP and VP is 45 mm. Draw its projections. Also find
its distance from HP.
6. Draw the projections of the following points on the same XY line, keeping convenient
distance between each projector. Also state the quadrant in which they lie
P -25 mm above HP & 35 mm in front of VP.
Q -30 mm above HP & 40 mm behind VP.
R – 40 mm above HP & on VP.
S – 35 mm below HP & 30 mm in front of VP
7. A point lying on VP, 20 mm below HP &30 mm behind /in front /from LPP. Draw its
projections and name the side view.

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 Projections of Straight Lines

Introduction
A line may be defined as the locus of a point moving along a fixed path. its projections are drawn
by joining the projection of its extreme (end) points. Hence, the projections of a straight line may
be drawn by joining the respective projections of its ends, which are points.
The position of a straight line may have different orientations in space. As per first angle projection,
it may be parallel, perpendicular or inclined to either or both the Reference planes (horizontal or
vertical planes) as mentioned in the below classification

1. Line parallel to both HP and VP.

2. Line parallel to one plane and perpendicular to the other
a) Line parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP
b) Line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP
3. Line parallel to one plane and inclined to the other
a) Line parallel to HP and inclined at an angle Φ degrees to VP
b) Line parallel to VP and inclined at an angle θ degrees to HP
4. Line inclined to both planes, ie Line is inclined at an angle θ degrees to HP and at
an angle Φ degrees to VP

System of Notation
1. The actual line in space is denoted by capital letters A and B, or C and D etc.
2. The front view (FV) of a line is denoted by their corresponding lower letters with dashes as a'
and b', c' and d' etc.
3. The top view (TV) of a line is denoted by their corresponding lower case letters without
dashes as a and b, c and d etc.
4. The side view (SV) of a line are denoted by their corresponding lower case letters with double
dashes as a" and b", c" and d" etc.
5. Projectors are always drawn as continuous thin lines.
6. True length lines are shown by thin lines while the projections are shown by Thick line.

Note : Only First angle Projection is used to solve problems on Projections of Straight lines.
Therefore VP is above, while HP is below the reference line XY.

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True length of Line: If a line is parallel to a plane of projection then its projection on that plane
will measure true length.

a) If a line is parallel to HP then its Top view measure True length

b) If a line is parallel to VP then its Front view measure True length.

True Inclination of a line: If a line is inclined to one of the principal plane of projection and
parallel to other plane, then the projection of the line on the other plane will measure true length
and will be inclined at True inclination.

a) If a line is parallel to VP and inclined at an angle θ degrees to HP, then its Front view
measures true length and will be inclined at true inclination ie θ degrees to the reference
line XY. While its top view will measure a length less than true length called as apparent
length.
b) If a line is parallel to HP and inclined at an angle Φ degrees to VP, then its Top view
measures true length and will be inclined at true inclination ie Φ degrees to the reference
line XY. While its front view will measure a length less than true length called as apparent
length.

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Note: This example is for illustration and not to be solved.

Draw the projections of a 80 mm long straight line AB, in the following positions:
i. Parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P. and 70 mm above HP, 60 mm infront of VP and
30 mm infront of Right Profile plane.

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 ii. Perpendicular to H.P., 70 mm in front of the V.P. and 60 mm infront of RPP. The
lower end is 30 mm above H.P.

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iii) Perpendicular to VP, 55 mm above HP, and 50 mm infront of RPP, its rear end is 30 mm
infront of VP

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iv. Inclined at 30° to the H.P, parallel to VP. End A is 35 mm above HP, 110 mm infront of RPP
and away from it. The line is 90 mm in front of V.P.

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v Inclined at 45° to VP and parallel to HP. End nearer to VP is 30 mm infront of it, 60 mm above
HP and 100 mm infront of RPP.

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Line inclined to both HP and VP: When a line is inclined at θ degrees to HP and at Φ degrees to
VP, then both views ie Top view and Front view will not measure true length instead their lengths
will measure apparent length.

Apparent length < True length

Also both views will not be inclined at true inclination instead they will be inclined at apparent
angle. ie Top view will be inclined at an angle β degrees and front view will be inclined at an angle
α degrees

Apparent Inclinations > True Inclinations

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 Problems for Practice: Following problems of Straight lines, inclined to both HP and VP to
be solved, both by Sketching & Computer Aided Drafting.

1. A line AB 80 mm long has its end A 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of VP. It is inclined
at 30º to HP and 45 to VP. Draw the projections of the line and find apparent lengths and
apparent inclinations.

Data given
True length of line AB = 80 mm
True inclinations of line – θ = 30º, Φ = 45
End point A of the line is located at 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of VP

Concept to draw projection of a straight line inclined to both HP and VP

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 Solution:

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2. A line AB has its end A 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm infront of the VP. The other end B is
60 mm above the HP. and 45 mm in front of VP. The distance between end projectors is 70 mm.
Draw its projections. Determine the true length and apparent inclinations.
Data given:
Location of end point A = 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm infront of the VP.
Location of end point B = 60 mm above the HP. and 45 mm infront of VP
Distance between end projectors = 70 mm

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3. A line PQ 85 mm long has its end P 10 mm above the HP and 15 mm infront of the VP. The top
view and front view of line PQ are 75 mm and 80 mm respectively. Draw its projections. Also
determine the and apparent inclinations of the line.
Given Data:
True length of line PQ = 85 mm
Location of end point P - 10 mm above the HP and 15 mm infront of the VP
Apparent length in top view pq = 75 mm
Apparent length in front view p’q’ = 80 mm

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 4. The distance between the end projectors through the end points of a line AB is 60 mm. The
end A is 10 mm above HP and 15 mm infront of VP. The end B is 35 mm infront of VP.
The line AB appears 70 mm long in the front view. Complete the projections. Find the true
length of the line and its inclinations with HP and VP.
Data given:
Distance between end projectors = 60 mm
Location of end point A- 10 mm above HP and 15 mm infront of VP
Location of end point B - 35 mm infront of VP.
Apparent length in front view a’b’ = 70 mm

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 5. The front view of the line PQ 80 mm long measures 50 mm and it is inclined to XY at 50o.
One end of the line P is 20 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP. Draw the front
view and top view of the line and find the inclinations of the line with HP and VP.

Data given:
True length of line PQ = 80 mm
Apparent length of front view p’q’ = 50 mm
Apparent angle of front view α = 50°
Location of end point P -20 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP

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 6. The top view of a line is 75 mm long and inclined to XY at 45°. One end is 20 mm above
HP and 10 mm infront of VP. The other end is 65 mm above HP and is infront of VP. What
is the true length of the line and its inclination with HP and VP.

Data given:
Apparent length of Top view ab = 75 mm
Apparent inclination of top view β = 45°
Location of End point A- 20 mm above HP and 10 mm infront of VP
Location of other end point B- 65 mm above HP and is infront of VP

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7. The top view of a line PQ is 70 mm and front view is 60 mm long. The end Q is nearer to both
HP and VP than the end P and is 15 above HP and 20 mm infront of VP. Draw the projections
of the line if the distance between projectors is 50 mm.

Data Given:
Apparent length in Top view pq = 70 mm
Apparent length in Front view p’q’ = 60 mm
End point Q is nearer than end point P
Location of point Q -15 above HP and 20 mm infront of VP
Distance between end projectors = 50 mm

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8. A straight line PQ is inclined at 45º to HP. The point P is in HP and 40 mm infront of VP. The
end point Q is in VP. The length of the straight line is 65 mm. draw the projections of the straight
line PQ
Data Given:
True length of line PQ = 65 mm
True inclination to HP θ = 45°
Location of point P – is in HP and 40 mm infront of VP
Location of point Q- is in VP

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9. The point B of a line AB is on the horizontal plane, the top view of the line makes an angle of
30º with XY line, being 80mm. The point A is on the vertical plane and 50 mm above the
horizontal plane. Draw the top and front views of the line and obtain the true length of the line.
Also find inclinations of the line with the two planes.

Data Given:
Location of end point A ; on the VP and 50 mm above the HP
Location of end point B: On HP
Apparent angle of top view = 30°
Apparent length of top view ab = 80 mm

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 10. The top and front views of a line are inclined at 36° and 50° to the XY line respectively.
One end of the line is touching both HP and VP. The other end is 50 mm above HP and 30
mm infront of VP. Find the true length, true inclinations of the line with HP and VP.

Data Given:
Apparent angle of top view = 35°
Apparent angle of front View = 50°
Location of end point A = Touches both HP and VP
Location of end point B = 50 mm above HP and 30 mm infront of VP.

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 Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

1. A line AB 80 mm long is inclined to HP 30º and to VP 45, end A touches both HP and
VP. Draw front and top views of line and determine their lengths. Also measure the
perpendicular distance of end B from both HP and VP.

2. A line AB has its end A 20 mm above the HP and 15 mm infront of the VP. The other end
B is 60 mm above the HP, and 45 mm in front of VP. The distance between end projectors
is mm 70 mm. draw its projections. Determine the apparent lengths and true inclinations.

3. The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while the front view is 50 mm.
Its one end A is in the HP and 12 mm in front of the VP. Draw the projections of AB and
determines its inclinations with the HP and the VP.

4. A line has its end A 15 mm above HP and 10 mm infront of VP. The end B is 55 mm above
HP and the line is inclined at 30º to HP. The distance between the end projectors is 50 mm.
Draw the projections of the line and determine the true length of the line and its inclinations
with VP.

5. One end of a line is 30 mm in front of VP and 30 mm above HP. The line is inclined at
400to HP and its top view measuring 60 mm, is inclined at 50º to XY. Draw the projections
of the line and determine true length and inclination with VP.

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 Projections of Plane Surfaces

Orthographic projections of Plane surfaces viz Triangle, Square, Rectangle, Pentagon,

Hexagon, Circular lamina are drawn using first angle projections only.

The Plane lamina may rest on HP or on VP in following conditions,

 Lamina resting on HP :
i) Lamina resting on an edge on HP
ii) Lamina resting on one of its corners on HP
 Lamina resting on VP :
i) Lamina resting on an edge on VP
ii) Lamina resting on one of its corners on VP

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 Projections of Plane lamina can be drawn in the following positions

1: Plane lamina parallel to one ref plane and perpendicular to other.

a) Lamina parallel to HP and Perpendicular to VP

b) Lamina parallel to VP and Perpendicular to HP

c) Lamina perpendicular to both HP and VP while it is parallel to PP

Note:
1) When a lamina is parallel to a plane of projection then the projections of the lamina on that
principal plane will show True Shape and size.
i.e. If the lamina is parallel to HP, then its top view will show True shape and size
If the lamina is parallel to VP, then its front view will show true shape and size
2) When the lamina is perpendicular to a plane of projection then the projections on that principal
plane will be a straight line
i.e. If the lamina is perpendicular to HP then its top view will be a straight line
If the lamina is perpendicular to VP then its front view will be a straight line

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2: Plane lamina inclined to one ref plane and perpendicular to other.

a) Lamina Inclined to HP at Ө°and perpendicular to VP

b) Lamina Inclined to VP at Φ°and perpendicular to HP

Note;
When a lamina is inclined at an angle to a principal plane of projection then its projection on that
plane will show apparent shape
i.e If the lamina is inclined to HP at an angle θ° then its top view will show apparent shape.
If the lamina is inclined to VP at an angle Φ° then its front view will show apparent shape
When the lamina is inclined to one plane and perpendicular to other plane then the projections of
the lamina on the plane to which it is perpendicular will show a straight line, inclined to XY at an
angle equal to True inclination
i.e. If the lamina is inclined to HP at angle θ° and is perpendicular to VP then its front view will
show a straight line inclined to XY at θ°
If the lamina is inclined to VP at angle Φ° and is perpendicular to HP then its top view will
show a straight line inclined to XY at Φ°.
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3: Plane lamina Inclined to both ref plane (HP and VP)

Note:
When a lamina is inclined to both, HP and VP then both its Top view and Front view will
show apparent shape.
Projections of a lamina, when it is inclined to both HP and VP can be obtained by using,
Change of position method, i.e. the projections of the plane surface is obtained in three
positions as explained below
Initial position: Drawn by placing the lamina parallel to either HP (to satisfy the
condition that the lamina rest on HP) or on VP (to satisfy the condition that the lamina
rest on VP).
2nd Position: Drawn to satisfy the condition of inclination of surface of the lamina either
to HP or VP
3rd or final position: Drawn to satisfy the condition of inclination of the lamina to either
VP or HP

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 Note:

1. When a lamina rest on either HP or VP on one of its edges, then draw the initial position
as shown for different types of lamina.

2. When a lamina rest either on HP or VP on one of its corner, then draw the initial
position as shown for different types of lamina.

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 Problems of Plane lamina in following categories:
1. Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its side or edges.
2. Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its side or edges
3. Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its corner
4. Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its corner
5. Plane Lamina touching both HP and VP.

Solution procedure for obtaining projections of lamina inclined to both HP and VP using
Change of position method.

1. An equilateral triangular lamina of 25 mm side lies with one of its edges on HP such the surface
of the lamina is inclined to HP at 60º. The edge on which it rests is inclined to VP at 60. Draw
the projections.

For any given problem note the data given as shown below
Data given:
Type of Lamina: Equilateral triangular lamina of side 25 mm
Lamina resting on HP or VP: It is resting on HP.
Lamina resting on an edge or Corner: It is resting on an edge.
(This condition is shown in first or initial position.
If lamina rest on HP then initial position is drawn by placing lamina parallel to HP,
If lamina rest on VP then initial position is drawn by placing lamina parallel to VP)
Surface inclined to HP or VP: Its surface is inclined to HP at an angle θ = 60°
(if lamina rest on HP then its surface will be inclined to HP,
if lamina rest on VP then its surface will be inclined to VP.
This inclination will be shown in second position)
Inclination of an element of the lamina to other principal plane: The edge on which lamina rest
is inclined to VP at an angle Φ = 60°
(This inclination is shown in third or final position)
The solution is illustrated in three positions separately:

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Initial position: Triangular lamina resting on its edge on HP

2nd Position: Surface of lamina is inclined to HP at 60°

3rd Position or Final position: Edge on which lamina rest is inclined to VP at 60°

Note: All problems should be solved using above concept.

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Problems for Practice:
Following problems of Plane surfaces or lamina, inclined to HP and VP to be solved, both by
Sketching & Computer Aided Drafting.

A) Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its side or edges.

1) A 30º- 60º setsquare of 60 mm longest side is so kept such that the longest side is in HP,
making an angle of 30º with VP. The set square itself is inclined at 45º to HP. Draw the
projections of the setsquare.

2) A Hexagonal lamina of edges 25mm is resting on HP with one of its sides. The lamina
makes 45º to HP. And the side on which it rests is inclined at 30º to VP. Draw its
projections.

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 3) A rectangular lamina of sides 20mm x 30mm rests on HP on one of its longer edges. The
lamina is tilted about the edge on which it rests till its plane surface is inclined to HP at
45°. The edge on which it rests is inclined at 30° to VP. Draw the projections of the lamina.

4) The top view of a square lamina of side 30 mm is a rectangle of sides 30mm x 20mm with
longer side of the rectangle being parallel to both HP and VP. Draw the top and front views
of the square lamina. What is the inclination of the surface of the lamina with HP and VP.

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 5) An equilateral triangular lamina of 25 mm side lies on one of its sides on HP. The lamina
makes 45 with HP and one of its medians is at 40ºto VP. Draw its projections.

Note: cd1 =21.65 is the true length of the median, cd = 15.31 is its apparent length.
In 3rd position median is inclined to VP, it is required to determine apparent angle at which
the median should be inclined.
Line cd1 is inclined to true angle of 40°, but line cd is inclined at apparent angle 65° which
is determined

B) Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its side or edges.

6) A pentagonal lamina of edges 25 mm is resting on VP with one of its sides such that the
surface makes an angle of 60º with VP. The edge on which it rests is inclined at 45º to HP.
Draw its projections.

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 7) A rectangular plate of negligible thickness of size 35mm x 20mm has one of its shorter
edges in VP with that edge inclined at 40ºto HP. Draw the projections if its front view is a
square of side 20mm.

8) A hexagonal lamina of sides 25 mm rests on one of its sides on VP. The side opposite to
the side on which it rests is 30mm infront of VP & the side on which it rests makes 45º to
HP. Draw its projections. Also determine the inclination of the lamina with reference plane

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 C) Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its corner:
9) A square plate of 40 mm sides rests on HP such that one of the diagonals is inclined at
30º to HP and 45º to VP. Draw its projections.

Note:
In 3rd Position -The median passing through the corner on which lamina rest is inclined to VP.
Determine APPARENT inclination

10) A hexagonal lamina of sides 25mm rests on one of its corners on HP. The lamina makes
45º to HP and the diagonal passing through the corner on which it rests appears to be
inclined at 30º to VP. Draw its projections

Note:
In 3rd Position - The median passing through the corner on which lamina rest appears to be
inclined to VP. Hence inclined to the given angle.
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 11) A circular lamina of 50mm diameter rests on HP such that one of its diameters is inclined
at 45º to HP and appears to be inclined at 45º to VP. Draw its top and front views in this
position.

D) Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its corner:

12) A pentagonal lamina having edges 25mm is placed on one of its corners on VP such that
the surface makes an angle 30º with VP perpendicular bisector of the edge passing through
the corner on which the lamina rests is inclined at 45º to HP. Draw the top and front views
of the lamina.

In 3rd position: Perpendicular bisector passing through the corner on which it rest is inclined
to HP. Determine apparent inclination

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 E) Plane Lamina touching both HP and VP.
13) A pentagonal lamina of sides 25 mm is having a side on both HP and VP. The surface of
the lamina is inclined at an angle of 60° with HP Draw the top and front views of the lamina

3RD Position: The side ‘ab’ on which the lamina rest is touching both HP and VP. ‘ab’ is on
reference line xy to satisfy this condition

14) A regular pentagonal lamina of 25 mm side is resting on one of its corners on HP while the
side opposite to this corner touches VP. If the lamina makes an angle of 60° with HP and 30°
with VP, draw the projections of lamina

3RD Position: The side ‘cd’ opposite to the corner ‘a’ on which the lamina rest is touching both
HP and VP. ‘cd’ is on reference line xy to satisfy this condition
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 15) A regular hexagonal lamina of sides 25mm is lying in such a way that one of its corners is
on HP while the corner opposite to the corner on which it rests is on VP. If the lamina
makes 60° to HP.. Draw the projections of the lamina

16) A circular lamina inclined to the HP appears in the front view as an ellipse of major axis
30mm and minor axis 15 mm. The major axis is parallel to both HP and VP. One end of the
minor axis is in both HP and VP. Draw the projections of the lamina. Determine the
inclination with VP.

3RD Position: One end of the minor axis’ a’ is touching both HP and VP. And the major axis
‘bd’ is parallel to both HP and VP. ‘a’ is on reference line xy to satisfy this condition.
Measure θ = 60°
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 Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its side or edges

1) A pentagonal lamina of edges 25mm is resting on HP with one of its sides such that the
surface makes an angle of 60º with HP. The edge on which it rests is inclined at 45ºto VP.
Draw its projections
2) Draw the top and front views of a hexagonal lamina of 30 mm sides having two of its edges
parallel to both HP and VP and one of its edges is 10 mm from each of the planes of
projection. The surface of the lamina is inclined at an angle of 60º to the HP.
Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its side or edges
3) A rectangular plate of negligible thickness of size 35mm x 20mm has one of its shorter
edges in VP with that edge inclined at 40º to HP. Draw the projections if the top view if its
front view is a square of side 20mm.
4) An isosceles triangular plate of negligible thickness has base 25 mm long and altitude 35
mm. It is so placed on HP such that in the front view it is seen as an equilateral triangle of
25 mm sides with the side that is parallel to VP is inclined at 45º to HP. Draw its top and
front views. Also determine the inclination of the plate with the reference plane.
Plane Lamina resting on HP on one of its corner
5) A hexagonal lamina of sides 25mm rests on one of its corners on HP. The lamina makes
45º to HP and the diagonal passing through the corner on which it rests is inclined at 30º to
VP. Draw its projections.
6) A circular lamina of 50mm diameter rests on HP such that one of its diameters is inclined
at 45º to VP and 45º to HP. Draw its top and front views in this position

Plane Lamina resting on VP on one of its corner

7) A Triangular lamina of 25 mm sides on one of its corners on VP such the median passing
through the corner on which it rests is inclined at 45º to VP and appears to be inclined at
30º to HP and Draw its projections.
8) A Triangular lamina of 25 mm sides on one of its corners on VP such the median passing
through the corner on which it rests is inclined at 45º to VP and at 30º to HP. Draw its
projections.

Plane Lamina touching both HP and VP.

9) A regular pentagonal lamina of 25 mm side is resting on one of its sides on HP while the
corner opposite to this side touches VP. If the lamina makes an angle of 60° with HP and
30° with VP, draw the projections of lamina
10) A regular hexagonal lamina of sides 25mm is lying in such a way that one of its sides is on
HP while the side opposite to the side on which it rests is on VP. If the lamina makes 60°
to HP.. Draw the projections of the lamina.

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 Module 2: Projections of Solids

Syllabus: Projections of right regular solids (Solids resting on HP only): Prisms & Pyramids (
Square, Pentagon, Hexagon, Cylinder, Cone & Tetrahedron)
Pyramids resting on slant edge, slant triangular face and Cone resting on slant generator
included, Problems of freely suspended square prism and square pyramid ( CIE only)

Solid:
Any object having definite length, width and height is called a solid i.e a sold is 3 dimensional
object. The knowledge of projections of solids is essential in 3D modeling and animation.

Classification of solids:

Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a solid bounded by planes called faces, which meet in straight lines called edges.
A regular polyhedron has all the faces equal and regular as shown in Fig.

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Prism
A prism is a polyhedron with two n-sided polygonal bases which are parallel and congruent, and
lateral faces are rectangles. An imaginary line that joins the centre of the bases is called an axis.
A right and regular prism has regular polygonal bases, axis perpendicular to the bases and all the
faces are equal rectangles, as shown in Fig.
Prisms are named according to the shape of their base, so a prism with a triangular base is called
a triangular prism; a square base is called a square prism and so on.

Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron with n-sided polygonal base and lateral faces are triangles meeting at
a point called the vertex or apex. An imaginary line that joins the apex with the centre of the base
is known as the axis. A right and regular pyramid has a regular polygon base, axis perpendicular
to the base and all the faces are equal isosceles triangles, as shown in Fig.
Pyramids are named according to the shape of their base, so a pyramid with a triangular base is
called a triangular pyramid; a square base is called a square pyramid and so on.

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Solid of Revolution
These solids are obtained by revolving a plane figure like rectangle, triangle or a semi-circle about
a fixed line.
Cylinder: A cylinder is a solid of revolution obtained by revolving a rectangle about one of its
fixed side called an axis.. Any line on the surface of a cylinder is called its generator. Thus, a
cylinder has an infinite number of generators. A right cylinder has all the generators and the axis
perpendicular to the base, as shown in Fig.
Cone: A cone is obtained by revolving a triangle about its fixed side called an axis. Any line on
the surface of a cone is called its generator. Thus, a cone has an infinite number of generators. A
right cone has all generators of equal length and the axis perpendicular to the base, as shown in
Fig. b.
Sphere: A sphere is obtained by revolving a semi-circle around its diameter, as shown in Fig c

Cylinder Cone Sphere

Frustum of Pyramid and Cone

When a regular pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base and the portion of the solid
containing apex is removed, the remaining portion of the solid is called the frustum of that pyramid
or cone, as shown in Fig

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Projections of these solids are obtained when the solid rest on their base on HP only.
Following are the possible conditions that a solid may rest on HP
1) Solid resting on one of its Base Edge.
2) Solid resting on one of its Base Corner.
Solids may be placed in the following Positions with respect to HP and VP.
1) Axis of solid perpendicular to HP
2) Axis of the solid perpendicular to VP.
3) Axis of solid inclined to HP and parallel to VP.
4) Axis of solid inclined to VP and parallel to HP.
5) Solid inclined to both HP and VP.

Projections of a Solid inclined to both HP and VP. are obtained ‘ Change of Position Method’

The method include obtaining projections in three positions:

i) 1st or Initial position:
Initial positions are drawn when a solid rest on HP on its base with its axis perpendicular to HP
and parallel to VP, satisfying the condition whether the solid rest on base edge or base corner.
In this position draw the top view of the solid, which show the base in true shape, then front view
is projected which show the true length of axis, being perpendicular to XY line.
Fig below show the initial positions of different solids when they are placed either on base edge
or base corner.
a) Initial position, for prisms are shown below when a prism rest on HP on one of its base
edge

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 b) Initial position, for pyramids are shown below when a pyramid rest on HP on one of its
base edge

c) Initial position, for prisms are shown below when a prism rest on HP on one of its base
corner.

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 d) Initial position, for pyramids are shown below when a pyramid rest on HP on one of its
base corner

e) Intial position for a Cylinder and Cone shown below

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 ii) 2nd position: Obtained when solid is inclined at Ө° to HP.
The projections of solid in second position are drawn by tilting the solid, such that its axis
is inclined to HP at θ° and parallel to VP. This is obtained by redrawing the front view in
1st position at true inclination of θ°, and then projecting the top view.
Fig below show the method of drawing 2nd position.

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 iii) 3rd Position or Final position: Obtained when the solid is further inclined at Φ° to VP.
The top view obtained in second position is redrawn at an angle Φ° and then projecting the
Front view.

Note: All visible edges are shown by continuous lines, while invisible or hidden edges
are shown as dotted lines. Axis is shown by its conventional representation.

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Solution procedure for obtaining projections of a solid, inclined to both HP and VP using
Change of position method.

 An equilateral triangular prism 25 mm side of base and 50 mm long rests with one of its
base edges on HP such that the rectangular face containing the edge on which the prism
rests is inclined at 30° to HP. The edge on which the prism rests is inclined at 60° to VP.
Draw its projections.

For any given problem note the data given as shown below
Data given:
1) Type of solid: Triangular Prism. Side of base 25 mm, axis height 60 mm.
2) Solid rest on Base edge or corner: It rest on base edge.
( This condition is shown in 1st or initial position: Draw the top view first by keeping
the given solid on HP on its base with its axis perpendicular to HP, parallel to VP
and satisfying the condition that the rest on base edge or corner. Then project the front
view. Top view shows the base in true shape)
3) True Inclination with HP, θ°= 30°: Rectangular face containing the edge on which
the prism rests is inclined at 30° to HP
(In this position redraw or copy the front view obtained in 1st position by tilting it to
given true inclination θ° satisfying the condition. Then project top view. Show visible
and invisible edges as per convention)
(Front view in1st & 2nd position remain same in shape and size, except that front view
in 2nd position will be tilted at given inclination of θ°)
4) True inclination with VP, Φ°= 60°: The edge on which the prism rests is inclined at
60° to VP.
(In this position redraw the Top view obtained in 2nd position by tilting it to given true
inclination Φ° or apparent inclination if determined, satisfying the given condition.
Then project the front view in final position. Show visible and invisible edges as per
convention)
( Top view in 2nd position and in 3rd position remain same in shape and size, except
that the top view in 3rd position is drawn by tilting it at Φ° or apparent angle if
determined)

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The solution is illustrated in three positions separately:

1st or initial position: Draw top view first, then project front view.

2nd position-Inclination with HP: Copy or redraw the front view in 1st position such that
rectangular face (b1’c1’-b’c’) is inclined at 30°

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3rd or final position: Copy and redraw the top view in 2nd position such that the edge b1c1 on
which the solid rest is inclined at given 60° to XY line in 3rd position, then project the final front
view.

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Problems for Practice:
Following problems of solids, inclined to HP and VP to be solved, both by Sketching &
Computer Aided Drafting.

A) Problems of solids resting on base edge

1) A square prism 35 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its edges
of the base which is inclined to VP at 30º. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis
is inclined to HP at 45º.

Data given:
i) Type of solid: Square prism-side of base 35 mm and 60 mm axis length
ii) Rest on base edge or corner: on base edge
iii) Inclination with HP θ°= 45° - Axis inclined to HP
iv) Inclination with VP Φ° = 30° - Edge on which prism rest inclined to VP

Final solution:

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 2) a) A pentagonal prism 25 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of
its edges of the base. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis is inclined to HP at
40º and appears to be inclined at 30º to VP

b) A pentagonal prism 25 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of

its edges of the base. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis is inclined to HP at
40º and at 30º to VP

Note: In this problem reference is given to Axis of the solid in 3rd position.
When reference is given to axis and if it is given as ‘axis appears to be inclined at an
angle to VP’ then the given angle is apparent inclination β° and hence in third position
the top view can be redrawn to the given angle.

Solution to question 2. (a):

In this problem axis appears to be inclined at 30°, hence the given angle is apparent angle β°.
Therefore in 3rd position the top view is redrawn to the given angle.

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Solution to question 2. (b):
In this problem axis is inclined at 30°, hence the given angle is true inclination θ°. Therefore in 3rd
position apparent angle β°, should be determined and then the top view is redrawn to the apparent
angle only.

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 3) A hexagonal pyramid 25 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of
its base edges which is inclined to VP at 30°. Draw the projections of the pyramid when its
axis is inclined at 40° to HP

4) A square pyramid 35mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
edges of the base. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the axis is inclined to HP at
45º and at 30º to VP.

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Problems of solids resting on Base corner
5) A square prism 35 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
corners of the base such that the two base edges containing the corner on which it rests
make equal inclinations with HP. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis of the
prism is inclined to HP at 40º and appears to be inclined to VP at 45º

6) A pentagonal prism 25mm sides of base and 50 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
corners of the base such that the two base edges containing the corner on which it rests
make equal inclinations with HP. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis of the
prism is inclined to HP at 40º and to VP at 30º.

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 7) A square pyramid 35 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
corners of the base such that the two base edges containing the corner on which it rests
make equal inclinations with HP. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the axis of the
pyramid is inclined to HP at 40º and to VP at 30º.

Problems on Hexahedron (Cube) and Tetrahedron

8) A tetrahedron of sides 40mm is resting on one of its sides on HP. This side is parallel to
VP and 40mm away from it. It is tilted about resting side such that the base containing this
edge is inclined at 30º to HP. Draw the projections of the solid.

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 9) A tetrahedron of 55mm sides rests on one of its corners such that an edge containing that
corner is inclined to HP at 50º and VP at 30º. Draw its projections.

10) A hexahedron of 30mm sides is resting on one of its corners on HP such that one of its
solid diagonals is perpendicular to VP. Draw the projections of the solid.

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Problems of Pyramids resting on one of its slant edge on HP

11) A square pyramid 35 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
slant edges. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the axis appears to be inclined to
VP at 45°.

Note: Since the pyramid rest on one of its slant edges on HP, Draw the initial position
such that it is resting on a base corner on HP

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Problems of Pyramids resting on one of its triangular face on HP

12) A pentagonal pyramid 25 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of
its slant triangular face. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the axis appears to be
inclined to VP at 45°.

Note: Since the pyramid rest on one of its triangular face on HP, Draw the initial
position such that it is resting on a base edge on HP

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Problems on Cone.

13) A cone of base 60 mm diameter and axis 80 mm long rests on HP with its axis inclined at
45° to HP and appears to be inclined at 40° to VP. Draw its front and top views.

14) A cone of 50mm base diameter and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its generators.
Draw its projections when the axis is inclined to VP at 30º.

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Problems of Freely suspended Square prism and Square pyramid.

 Note: When a prism is freely suspended from one of its corner, then the imaginary line
connecting the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the solid and the corner from which it is suspended
will be vertical to XY line in 2nd position, and should be drawn above or it should not
touch the line XY
 The centre of gravity for the prism and cylinder will lie at the midpoint of its axis
 The centre of gravity for the pyramid and cone will lie at the distance equal to 1/4th
axis from the base

15) A square prism 35mm sides of base and 60mm axis length is suspended freely from one of
its corner. Draw the projections of the prism when the axis appears to be inclined to VP at
45º

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 16) A square pyramid of base sides 30 mm and height 45 mm is suspended by a thread tied to
one of the corners of its base. It is then tilted such that the axis makes an angle of 45º.With
respect to the VP. Considering the apex of the solid to be nearer to the observer, draw the
projections of the solid.

Note; In 3rd position determine apparent angle β° = 55°

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Problem on Cylinder

17) A right cylinder is 50 mm diameter of base and height 60 mm. It rests such that the axis is
inclined at 40° to HP and appears to be inclined at 45° to VP. Draw its projections.

Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

1) A cube of 30 mm side rest on one of its base edges on HP such that one of the square faces
containing the edge is inclined at 30° to HPand the edge on which it rests is inclined at 60°
to VP. Draw its projections.
2) A cylinder of diameter of base 50 mm and 60 mm high rests on one of its generators on
HP. The axis appears to be inclined at 50° to VP. Draw its projections.
3) A hexagonal pyramid 30 mm sides of base and 50 mm axis length rests on HP on one of
its slant edges. Draw the projections of the pyramid when the axis appears to be inclined
to VP at 45°.
4) A pentagonal prism 35 mm sides of base and 60 mm axis length rests on HP on one of its
edges of the base which is inclined to VP at 30º. Draw the projections of the prism when
the axis is inclined to HP at 45º.

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 Module-3: Isometric Projections
Syllabus: Isometric scale, Isometric projection of hexahedron (cube), right regular prisms,
pyramids, cylinder, cone, sphere, hemisphere and Frustum of pyramids and cone. Isometric
projection of combination of two simple solids.
Conversion of simple isometric drawings into orthographic views of simple machine
components.

Orthographic projections of an object show the principal views separately as Front, Top, and
Profile views, in its true shape and dimensions. This becomes difficult to visualize the complete
object.
A three dimensional form an object can be visualized when a single view is drawn. This concept
of drawing is pictorial drawing.
Isometric Projection is a form of pictorial drawing, in which an object can be visualized in a single
view

Orthographic Projections Isometric Projections

Two or more Principal views are drawn to Only one view is drawn
understand the object
Good imagination is needed to visualize the Easy to visualize the object
object in 3D
Only engineering personnel can understand Easily understood by anyone

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The Projections obtained for a Cube resting on ground on one of its corners with a solid diagonal
perpendicular to VP, Front view of the cube is isometric projection. All faces of the cube are
equally inclined

The isometric projection of an object is obtained on a vertical plane of projection by placing

the object in such a way that its mutually perpendicular edges make equal inclinations with
the plane of projection.

Features of Isometric Projections:

 The angle between the edges in isometric projections is 120°.

 Three mutually perpendicular lines as shown are known as Isometric Axes. Lines are
inclined at 30 °only

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  Any line Parallel to Isometric Axes is known as Isometric Line. Any line which is not
parallel to isometric axes is known as Non Isometric line

 In Isometric projections, the lengths of the three mutually perpendicular edges of the object
are reduced in the same proportion. Hence True length of all lines is reduced. The length
of a line in Isometric projections is less than True length of the line, called as Isometric
length. Isometric projections are drawn by using isometric length only.
 Isometric length < True length
 Isometric Length = (√2 / √3 ) True length
= 0.816 True length

Isometric View and Isometric projections:

 The view drawn using the true length or actual scale then it is called Isometric View.
 If the view is drawn to Isometric length then it is called Isometric projections.

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 Isometric Scale:

In isometric projections all lengths parallel to isometric axes are reduced and will be in a
proportion (0.816 x True length). It becomes difficult to calculate the isometric length for
all edges. To facilitate an easy and quick method to obtain the isometric length , a special
scale called Isometric Scale is constructed as shown in the figure above. On this scale the
isometric lengths of corresponding actual lengths are obtained directly.
It consists two lines, one drawn at an angle 45° along which true length are marked, and
the other at an angle 30° along which isometric length can be measured by simply drawing
perpendicular from true length line to isometric line on the scale.

Note: Drawing Isometric projections is facilitated by using Grid sheets available in sketch
books as shown below.

In this sheet the grids are inclined at 30° and scale used is 10 mm = 0.816 mm. hence it is
easy to draw isometric lines. Ex: A line of 30 mm true length can be drawn to its isometric
length by selecting 3 units on the grid sheet.

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 Isometric projections for plane lamina can be drawn as shown below both in Horizontal
plane and in vertical plane either in left or right sides.

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 ‘4 centers method’ is used to draw Isometric projections of a circle

Problems for Practice: Following problems to be solved, both by Sketching & Computer
Aided Drafting.
1) Draw the isometric projections of following solids resting on HP on base
a. Cube of sides 40 mm
b. Square prism of side of base 40 mm and height 60 mm
c. Pentagonal prism of side of base 30 mm and height of axis 50 mm
d. Cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and height of axis 60 mm
2) Draw the isometric projections of following solids resting on HP on base
a) Square pyramid of side of base 40 mm and height 60 mm
b) Hexagonal pyramid side of base 30 mm and height of axis 50 mm
c) Cone of base diameter 50 mm and height of axis 60 mm.
3) Draw the isometric projections of frustum of a square pyramid of base sides 40mm, top
face side 20 mm and height 60mm resting on HP.
4) Draw the isometric projections of frustum of a cone of base diameter 50 mm, and diameter
of top 30 mm and height 60 mm resting on HP.

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1a) Isometric projections of a Cube of sides 40 mm 1b) Isometric projection of a Square prism of side of
base 40 mm and height 60 mm

1c) Pentagonal prism of side of base 30 mm and 1d) Cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and height of
height of axis 50 mm axis 60 mm

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2a) Square pyramid of side of base 40 mm and 2b) Hexagonal pyramid side of base 30 mm and
height 60 mm height of axis 50 mm

2c) Cone of base diameter 50 mm and height of axis 60 mm.

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 3) Draw the isometric projections of frustum of a square pyramid of base sides 40 mm, top face side
20 mm and height 60 mm resting on HP.

4) Draw the isometric projections of frustum of a cone of base diameter 50 mm, and diameter of top
30 mm and height 60 mm resting on HP.

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 Isometric projection of combinations of solids:

1) Two cubes of sides 60 mm, 40 mm are placed centrally one above the other in the
descending order of their side. Draw the isometric projection of the combination.

2) A square prism of base side 40mm and height 70 mm has a full depth co- axial square hole
of base side 20 mm, such that edges of both the squares are parallel. Draw the isometric
projection of the hollow prism.

3) A cube of side 25 mm is resting centrally on a rectangular slab 100 mmx40 mm and 30 mm

thick. Draw the isometric projection of the combination.

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4) A rectangular pyramid of base 40 mm x 25 mm and height 50 mm is placed centrally on
rectangular slab sides 100 mm x 60 mm and thickness 20mm. Draw the isometric projection of the
combination

5) A cone of base diameter 30 mm and height 40 mm rests centrally over a cube of side 50 mm.
Draw the isometric projection of the combination of solids.

6) The frustum of a square pyramid of sides 40 mm, top face side 20 mm and height 60mm rest
on the top of a square block of side 60 mm and height 20 mm. The base edge of the pyramid is
parallel to the top edges of the square block. Draw the isometric projection of combination of the
solids.

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7) A sphere of diameter 30mm rests on the frustum of a hexagonal pyramid base 30mm, top face
18mm side and height 50mm, such that their axes coincide. Draw the isometric projection of the
combined solids.

8) A sphere of diameter 50mm rests centrally on top of a cube of sides 50mm.Draw the isometric
projections of the combination of solids.

9) A cone of base diameter 30 mm and height 40 mm rests centrally over a cube of side 50 mm.
draw the isometric projection of the combination of solids.

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 10) A hemisphere of diameter 50mm is centrally resting on top of a square prism of base side
60mm and height 30mm such that the curved surface of hemisphere is touching the top
face of the prism. Draw its isometric projections.

11) A sphere diameter 40mm is placed centrally on the flat face of a hemisphere diameter
60mm. Draw the isometric projections of the combination.

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 12) Following figure shows the front and side views of solid. Draw the isometric projection of
the solid

13) Following figure shows the front and side views of solid. Draw the isometric projection of
the solid

14) Following figure shows the front and side views of solid. Draw the isometric projection of
the solid

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Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

1) A cone of base diameter 30mm and height 40mm rests centrally over a cube of side
50mm. Draw the isometric projection of the combination of solids.
2) A sphere of diameter 50mm rests centrally on top of a cube of sides 50mm.Draw the
isometric projections of the combination of solids.
3) A cylinder of base diameter 40 mm and height 50 mm is placed centrally on the top of
a square slab of side 60 mm and height 20 mm. Draw the isometric projections of the
combination of solids.
4) A hemisphere of 60 mm diameter with its flat circular face at the top is placed centrally
on the top flat end of of an another hemisphere of diameter 80 mm. Draw the isometric
projection of the arrangement.

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 Conversion of Isometric drawings into Orthographic projections.
The given Isometric projections of simple components need to be converted into its Orthographic
views.

Problems for Practice: Following problems to be solved, both by Sketching & Computer
Aided Drafting.

1) Using first angle projection, draw front view looking in the direction of the arrow shown,
Also draw the top view and right side view of the machine component shown in the figure

Solution: The surfaces visible in front view, top view and profile view are shown in different colors.
The shape and dimensions of the surfaces should be drawn in the orthographic views to get the
solution

Note: Directions of arrow shown – F : Front view, T : Top view, P: Profile or Side view.
Orthographic views of the given object are obtained as shown below.

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 2) Draw the complete orthographic projections of the object shown in the figure

The surfaces visible in front view, top view and profile view are shown in different colors.
The shape and dimensions of the surfaces should be drawn in the orthographic views to get
the solution
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Orthographic views of the given object are drawn as shown below.

3) Draw the complete orthographic projections of the object shown in the figure

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 The surfaces visible in front view, top view and profile view are shown in different colors.
The shape and dimensions of the surfaces should be drawn in the orthographic views to get
the solution

Orthographic views of the given object are drawn as shown below.

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 4) Draw the complete orthographic projections of the object shown in the figure

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 The surfaces visible in front view, top view and profile view are shown in different
colors. The shape and dimensions of the surfaces should be drawn in the orthographic
views to get the solution

Orthographic views of the given object are drawn as shown below.

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 5) Draw the complete orthographic projections of the object shown in the figure

The surfaces visible in front view, top view and profile view are shown in different colors.
The shape and dimensions of the surfaces should be drawn in the orthographic views to get
the solution

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Orthographic views of the given object are drawn as shown below.

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Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

Draw the complete orthographic projections of the objects shown in the following figures

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 Module - 4: Development of Lateral Surfaces of Solids
Syllabus: Development of lateral surfaces of right regular prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones
resting with base on HP only. Development of lateral surfaces of their frustums. Problems on
applications of development of lateral surfaces like funnels and trays. (For CIE Only).

A development is the unfold /unrolled flat / plane figure of a 3-D object. Called also as a pattern,
the plane may show the true size of each area of the object. When the pattern is cut, it can be rolled
or folded back into the original object.
The surfaces of an object which are opened out and laid on a flat plane are called the development
of surfaces of that object.

Methods of development of surfaces are:

1. Parallel line development
2. Radial line development
3. Triangulation development
4. Approximate development

1) Parallel line development uses parallel lines to construct the expanded pattern of each
three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a series of parallel lines to
determine the shape of a pattern. Example: Prism, Cylinder.

2) Radial line development uses lines radiating from a central point to construct the expanded
pattern of each three-dimensional shape. Example: Cone, Pyramid.

3) Triangulation developments are made from polyhedrons, singlecurved surfaces, and

wrapped surfaces. Example: Tetrahedron and other polyhedrons.
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 4) In approximate development, the shape obtained is only approximate. After joining, the
part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape. Example: Sphere.

Note: A true development is one in which no stretching or distortion of the surfaces occurs and
every surface of the development is the same size and shape as the corresponding surface on
the 3-D object. Hence development of lateral surfaces should be drawn using only true length.

Principle of Development: Every line on the development should show the true length of the
corresponding line on the surface which is developed.

Development of a Prism is illustrated below.

1) A square prism of base side 30 mm and axis length 60 mm is resting on HP on its base with
all the vertical faces being equally inclined to VP.

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  Draw the projections of square prism, in simple position, satisfying the given
condition that the faces are equally inclined to VP.
 Using Parallel line method. Draw four rectangles adjacent to each other to true
area of the rectangular face of the prism, by considering that the surface is opened
from edge AA1.
Development of a cylinder is illustrated below.
2) Develop the lateral surface of the cylinder of 40 mm diameter of base and height 60 mm.

Development of a cylinder is a strip of a Rectangle, drawn using parallel line method.

Calculate (πD) = circumference of base circle to draw the development.
Development of a Pyramid is illustrated below.

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 3) Draw the development of lateral surface of a hexagonal pyramid of sides 35 mm and
altitude 65 mm resting on HP on its base with two of the base sides Parallel to VP.

 Draw the projections of hexagonal pyramid, in simple position, satisfying the given
condition that two of the base sides are Parallel to VP.
 Development of any pyramid should be drawn using True length of Slant Edge. In
this problem a slant edge od is parallel to xy in top view, hence line o’d’ in front
view measures its true length. o’d’ = 73.82 mm. This true length is considered and
the development of the pyramid.
 Using Radial line method draw six triangles adjacent to each other so that the area
of each triangle is equal to the true area of the triangular face of the pyramid as
shown, considering that the surface is opened from edge OA.

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 4) Draw the development of lateral surface of a hexagonal pyramid of sides 35 mm and
altitude 65 mm resting on HP on its base with two of the base sides perpendicular to VP.

 Draw the projections of hexagonal pyramid, in simple position, satisfying the given
condition that two of the base sides are perendicular to VP.
 Development of any pyramid should be drawn using True length of Slant Edge. In
this problem we observe that lines (slant edges) are inclined to XY line both in top
and front views.
Hence no line in front view, measures true length of slant edge. In such cases True
length of slant edge should be determined.
 To determine true length make a line in top view parallel to XY line by drawing the
arc, and projected to the front view and joined to the vertex . The inclined line is
measured to obtain True length.
As shown above line oc is made parallel to XY by drawing the arc. Then we get a
parallel line oc1. Point c1 is projected above to get c1’ on XY line. And this point
c1’ is joined to vertex o. The length oc1’ measures true length of slant edge. This
length is considered to draw the development..
 Using Radial line method draw six triangles adjacent to each other so that the area
of each triangle is equal to the true area of the triangular face of the pyramid as
shown, considering that the surface is opened from edge OA.

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Development of a Cone is illustrated below.

5) Develop the lateral surface of the cone of 50 mm diameter of base and height 60 mm.

 Draw the projections of cone, in simple position.

 Development of a cone should be drawn using True length of Slant generator. Line
o’a1’ = 65 mm in the front view measures the true length of slant generator.
 To draw the development of cone an angle called as Subtended angle 𝜃° should be
calculated by using the following expression
θ = (r/ R) x 360°
r = Radius of base circle
R = True length of slant generator
Development of a cone is a sector of a circle with an angle equal to subtended
angle θ.
For r = 25 mm, R = 65 mm
θ = (r/ R) x 360° = (25 / 65) x 360 = 138.5°
 Using Radial line method, draw an arc of radius ( R mm) equal to true length of
slant generator, measure an angle equal to subtended angle θ° to obtain the
development of the cone.

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Development of lateral surfaces of truncated solids:

Fig 1 Fig 2

Fig 3

A solid is cut by a plane called ‘Section Plane’, and top portion of the solid is considered to be
removed while the bottom portion of the solid is retained. The retained portion is called ‘Truncated
solid’. As shown in fig above, a section plane perpendicular to VP and parallel or inclined at an
angle to HP cuts the solid. The section plane is seen as a line in front view.

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Steps to draw development of truncated portion of the solids.

1. Draw the top and front views of the given solid in simple position, satisfying the given
conditions.
2. Draw the section plane as a line in front view, satisfying the conditions of the point through
which section plane passes and its inclination.
3. Locate and name section points.
• Section points are the points where section plane cuts the solid.
• If the plane cuts a longer edge of a prism, Slant edge of a pyramid, and Generators in
Cylinder and Cone, then locate one section point for each longer edge, slant edge or
Generator.
 If the section plane cuts the base of the solid (either at the top or bottom) then locate two
section points
 Name section points sequentially, first name visible points followed by invisible points
 Retained portion of solid should be shown by thick line, while cut portion of solid by thin
line.
4. Draw the Development of the given solid completely without considering the section.
5. Transfer all section points on respective edges in the development. Consider only true
length of the section points.
6. Join all section points by straight lines in prisms, pyramids. while section points of
cylinders and cones should be joined by smooth curve.
7. Complete the development of retained portion of solid by drawing thick lines, while cut
portion by thin

Steps to draw the development of truncated solid is illustrated below.

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Problems for Practice: Following problems to be solved, both by Sketching & Computer
Aided Drafting.
1) A square prism of base side 30mm and axis length 60mm is resting on HP on its base with
all the vertical faces being equally inclined to VP. It is cut by an inclined plane 60º to HP
and perpendicular to VP and is passing through a point on the axis at a distance 15mm from
the top face. Draw the development of the lower portion of the prism.

2) A rectangular prism of base 40mm x 25mm and height 65mm rests on HP on its base with
the longer base side inclined at 30° to VP. It is cut by a plane inclined at 40° to HP
perpendicular to VP cuts the axis at its mid height. Draw the development of the remaining
portion of the prism.

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 3) A pentagonal prism of base sides 30 mm and axis length 60 mm rests with its base on HP
and an edge of the base inclined at 45° to VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP,
inclined at 40° to HP and passing through a point on the axis, at a distance of 30mm from
the base. Develop the remaining surfaces of the truncated prism.

4) A hexagonal prism of base side 20mm and height 50 mm is resting on HP on its base, such
that one of its base edges is parallel to VP. The prism is cut in this position as shown in the
following front view. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the prism.

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 5) A square pyramid of side of base 45mm, altitude 70mm is resting with its base on HP with
two sides of the base parallel to VP. The pyramid is cut by a section plane which is
perpendicular to the VP and inclined at 40º to the HP. The cutting plane bisects the axis of
the pyramid. Obtain the development of the lateral surfaces the truncated pyramid.

6) A hexagonal pyramid of sides 35mm and altitude 65mm is resting on HP on its base with
two of the base sides Parallel to VP. The pyramid is cut by plane inclined at 30º to HP and
perpendicular to VP and is intersecting the axis at 30mm above the base. Draw the
development of the remaining portion of the pyramid.

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 7) Develop the lateral surface of the cylinder of 40mm diameter and height 60mm which is
cut in the following way.

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 8) Develop the lateral surface of the cylinder of 40 mm diameter and height 60 mm which is
cut in the following way.

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 9) Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cone, whose front view is as shown in
the following figure

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 10) A vertical cone 40 mm diameter of base and height 50 mm is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 30° to HP so as to bisect the axis of the cone. Draw the
development of lateral surface of the truncated cone.

11) Draw the development of the lateral surface of a funnel consisting of a cylinder and a
frustum of a cone. The diameter of the cylinder is 20mm and top face diameter of the funnel
is 80mm. The height of frustum and cylinder are 60mm and 40mm respectively

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 12) Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of a tray shown in the figure.

Development is shown below.

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Assignment Problems: Following problems to be solved by Sketching

1. A pentagonal prism of base sides 30mm and axis length 60mm rests with its base on HP and
an edge of the base inclined at 450 to VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP, inclined at
400 to HP and passing through a point on the axis, at a distance of 30mm from the base. Develop
the remaining surfaces of the truncated prism.
2. A square pyramid base 40mm side and axis 65mm long has its base on HP and all the edges of
the base are equally inclined to VP. It is cut by an inclined section plane so as the truncated
surface at 45º to its axis, bisecting it. Draw the development of the truncated pyramid.
3. A hexagonal prism of base side 25 mm and height 55mm is resting on HP on its base, such
that one of its base edges is parallel to VP. The prism is cut in this position as shown in the
following front view. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the prism.

4. A pentagonal pyramid 30mm edge of base and 50mm height rests vertically with one of its
base edges parallel to VP and nearer to it. It is cut as shown in following figure. Draw the
development of the lateral surfaces of the upper portion of the pyramid.

5. A right cone of 55mm diameter of base and 75mm height stands on its base on HP. It is cut
to the shape of a truncated cone with its truncated surface inclined at 450 to the axis lying
at a distance of 40mm from the apex of the cone. Obtain the development of the lateral
surface of the truncated cone
6. Draw the development of the lateral surface of a truncated vertical cylinder, 40mm
diameter of base and height 50mm, the truncated flat surface of the cylinder bisects the
axis at 600 to it.

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 Module 5
Multi-disciplinary Applications and Practice
Engineering drawing is a universal language for all engineers. Engineering drawings are
used to communicate design ideas and technical information to engineers and other
professionals throughout the design process.
The purpose of engineering drawing is to provide exact geometrical configuration for the
construction or analysis of machines, structures, or systems. Today, the mechanics of the
drawing task has been largely automated and greatly accelerated through a number of
computer software.
Engineering Drawing is multidisciplinary and applied in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical,
Electronics Engineering and Computer sciences.

Simple Mechanical Engg. Drawings:

1. Gear Trains
A gear train is a mechanical arrangement of gears that transmit rotational motion and torque
from one part of a machine or system to another. It consists of two or more gears meshed
together, forming a series of interconnected rotating elements. Gear trains are widely used
in various applications, including automotive transmissions, industrial machinery, and clock
mechanisms. They serve as a means to change the speed, direction, and torque of rotational
motion efficiently.

Types of Gear Trains

Types of gear trains include simple gear trains, compound gear trains

Simple Gear Train

A simple gear train is one of the most basic and common types of gear trains used for
transmitting rotational motion. It consists of two or more gears arranged in a series, with
each gear meshing with its adjacent gear. Simple gear trains are characterized by parallel
input and output shafts and provide a straightforward means of achieving specific gear ratios
for speed reduction or increase.

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Compound Gear Train
A compound gear train is a type of gear train that consists of multiple gears connected in
series with an intermediate shaft. Compound gear trains are commonly used in various
applications, including automotive transmissions, industrial machinery, and clock
mechanisms, where precise control of speed and torque is required.

2. Slider-crank Mechanism:
Slider-crank Mechanism is an arrangement of mechanical parts designed to convert
straight line motion to rotary motion, as in a reciprocating piston engine, or it is used to
convert rotary motion to straight line motion as in a reciprocating pump.
It's a four-bar linkage made up of three main parts:
 Crank: A rotating disc
 Slider: Moves along a straight line inside a tube
 Connecting rod: Joins the crank and slider together

The crank-slider mechanism is used in many applications, including:

 Reciprocating piston engines: Converts rotary motion to straight-line motion
 Reciprocating piston pumps: Converts straight-line motion to rotary motion
 Small in-pipe robots: Its compactness and high productivity make it a good
choice for these robots

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 3. Ratchet Mechanism:
A ratcheting mechanism is a device that allows for continuous rotary motion in one direction
while preventing motion in the opposite direction. It consists of a round gear or linear rack
with teeth, and a pivoting finger called a pawl that engages the teeth

4. Four Bar Mechanism:

Planar four-bar linkages are constructed from four links connected in a loop by four one-
degree-of-freedom joints. A joint may be either a revolute joint – also known as a pin joint
or hinged joint – denoted by R, or a prismatic joint – also known as a sliding pair – denoted
by P

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Computer aided Engg Drawing (BMECAD13/23) Compiled by Prof UMESH B S.Dept of Mech Engg BIET
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Electrical wiring and Lighting diagrams:
A wiring diagram is a simple visual representation of the physical connections and physical
layout of an electrical system or circuit. It shows how the electrical wires are interconnected
and can also show where fixtures and components may be connected to the system.

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Electrical wiring for Lighting:

Electrical wiring for calling bell:

DC Motor circuit

:
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Electronic circuit Drawings: A circuit diagram, also known as an electrical diagram,
elementary diagram, or electronic schematic, is a graphical representation that simplifies an
electrical circuit. It serves as a visual tool for the design, construction, and maintenance of
electrical and electronic equipment.

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Civil Engg. Drawings: A drawing is prepared before constructing any building.
Generally, a drawing is needed for every building.
Detailed Plan: In this type of building drawing the size, arrangement, and position of rooms
and veranda is shown. The thickness of the walls is also shown in it.

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Foundation Plan: This type of building drawing is prepared to show the detail of the
foundations of a building. The whole place and size used in the building are shown in this
plan

Steel Structures Frames, Trusses, Bridges:

Structural steel drawings are documents illustrating how steel materials are combined
during the construction process. They play a guiding role for contractors in selecting
construction materials. Essentially, structural steel drawings are documents that specify the
precise locations of each type of steel material used in the construction project.

Bridge Drawing

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Truss:

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Graphs and Charts:
Graph is a diagram showing the relation between variable quantities, typically of two
variables, each measured along one of a pair of axes at right angles.
A chart is a graphic representation of data that transforms the data into visual components.
For example, a pie chart uses slices of a circle and color coding to distinguish between
categories of data.
While many people use 'graph' and 'chart' interchangeably, they are different visuals. Charts
are tables, diagrams or pictures that organize large amounts of data clearly and concisely.
People use charts to interpret current data and make predictions. Graphs, however, focus on
raw data and show trends over time
Graphs and Charts can be conveniently drawn by using MS Excel software.
Gantt chart : A Gantt chart is a project management tool that visually represents a project's
timeline and tasks. It's a horizontal bar chart that shows the start and end dates of tasks, as
well as their dependencies, milestones, and assignees

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Pie chart: A pie chart is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph. The
slices of pie show the relative size of the data, and it is a type of pictorial representation of
data. A pie chart requires a list of categorical variables and numerical variables. Here, the
term “pie” represents the whole, and the “slices” represent the parts of the whole.

Histogram: A histogram is a chart that displays the distribution of numeric data by grouping
it into bins and representing the bins as segmented columns. Histograms are similar to
column charts, but there are no gaps between the bars in a histogram.

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Assignment:
1. Give examples of multidisciplinary applications of Engineering Drawing.
2. With a simple sketch show a building plan.
3. With a simple sketch show Electrical wiring diagram
4. Draw the sketch of Calling Bell Circuit diagram
5. Draw a sketch of simple gear train and Compound gear train
6. Draw the sketch of Slider –crank mechanism
7. Draw the sketch of Ratchet Mechanism
8. Use MS Excel to draw pie chart, Histogram

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Primer Computer aided Engineering Drawing (2024-25)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bapuji Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Davangere