UNIT:8 NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING

UNSHEILDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable has copper wires twisted together without extra protection. It is
cheap and easy to use. This cable is common in internet and phone connections.

STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLE:

A Straight-Through Cable is a type of Ethernet cable where the wires inside are arranged in the same
order on both ends. It is mainly used to connect different types of devices, such as a computer to a
switch, router, or modem. This cable helps in transmitting data smoothly between devices in a local area
network (LAN). It is the most commonly used network cable for home and office internet connections.

CROSS OVER CABLE:

A Crossover Cable is a type of Ethernet cable where the wires inside are arranged differently on both
ends. It is used to connect similar devices, such as one computer to another computer, one switch to
another switch, or one router to another router, without needing a separate network device like a
switch. This cable allows direct communication between the connected devices by swapping the
transmitting (TX) and receiving (RX) wires.

SINGLE MODE CABLE:

A Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) Cable is a type of fiber optic cable that carries data through a single beam of
light. It has a small core (about 8-10 microns), allowing light to travel straight with minimal signal loss.
This cable is used for long-distance communication, such as in telecommunications, internet
backbones, and large networks. It provides high speed and low interference but is more expensive
than multimode fiber cables.

MULTIMODE CABLE:

A Multimode Fiber (MMF) Cable is a type of fiber optic cable that carries multiple light signals at the
same time. It has a larger core (50–62.5 microns), allowing light to bounce inside and travel shorter
distances. This cable is used for short-range communication, such as in local networks (LANs), data
centers, and office buildings. It is cheaper than single-mode fiber but has more signal loss over long
distances.
UNIT NO: 6 NETWORK ADMINISTIRATION AND MANAGEMENT

TYPES OF SERVERS:

FILE SERVER:

A file server is a central computer that stores and manages files, allowing clients (user
devices) to access, share, and modify them over a network. The server handles file storage, security, and
backup, ensuring efficient data management. Clients send requests to the server to retrieve or save files.

APPLICATION SERVER:

An application server is a central computer that runs and manages applications,

allowing clients (user devices) to use them over a network. The server processes requests, runs the app,
and sends the results back to the client. This helps users access applications without installing them on
their own devices. 🚀

FAX SERVERS:

A fax server is a special computer in a network that sends and receives faxes digitally,
without needing a physical fax machine. It allows multiple users (clients) to send faxes through their
computers over a network. Simply, it works like a virtual fax machine that handles faxes for everyone in
an office or business.

MAIL SERVERS:

A mail server is a central computer that handles sending, receiving, and storing emails
for clients (user devices) in a network. The server processes email requests, ensuring messages are
delivered to the right recipients. Simply, it works like a post office that manages emails between users.

WEB SERVERS:

A web server is a special computer that stores websites and delivers them to users
when they request them through a web browser. It processes requests from clients (user devices) and
sends back web pages over the internet. Simply, it works like a restaurant waiter, bringing websites to
users when they ask for them.

MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS:

Managing user accounts in a computer network means controlling and

organizing user access to the network, devices, and resources. This includes creating, modifying, and
deleting accounts, setting passwords, assigning permissions, and ensuring security. Simply, it works like
a gatekeeper, deciding who can access what in the network.

 USER ACCOUNTS:

A user account is a digital identity that allows a person to access a computer or network
with a username and password. It helps in managing user permissions, files, and settings securely.
  BUILT IN ACCOUNTS:

Built-in accounts are default user accounts created automatically by a computer or network
system for basic administration and management. Examples include the Administrator and Guest
accounts in Windows

 THE ADMINISTIRATOR ACCOUNT:

An administrator account is a powerful user account in a computer or network that has full access to all
settings, files, and software. It allows the user to install programs, create or delete other accounts, change
security settings, and control the entire system. Simply, it works like the boss of the computer, managing
everything. 🔐🚀

Advantages:

1. Full Control: The admin can manage all system settings, software, and security.
2. User Management: It allows creating, modifying, or deleting user accounts.

Uses:

 Installing and updating software.

 Managing security settings and permissions.
 Creating or removing user accounts.
 Troubleshooting system issues.

 THE GUEST ACCOUNT:

A guest account is a temporary user account with limited access to a computer or network.
It allows basic use, like browsing and opening files, but cannot install software or change settings.

GROUP ACCOUNT:

A group account in computer networks is a single account used by many people to share
files and apps with the same permissions. It helps in managing users easily.

PERFORMANCE MONITORING:

Performance monitoring is the process of tracking and analyzing the speed, efficiency,
and overall health of a system, network, or software. It helps detect issues, improve performance, and
ensure everything runs smoothly.
UNIT: 5 CONNECTING DEVICES

DIAL UP MODEM:

DEFINITION:

A dial-up modem is a device that connects to the internet using a telephone line. It converts
digital data into analog signals to send over the line and then back into digital form. It was common in
the past but is now rarely used due to faster internet options.

USES:

 Connects to the internet using a telephone line.

 Supports basic web browsing and emails.
 Allows small file downloads and uploads.
 Enables remote access to networks and systems.
 Some modems can send and receive faxes.
 Mostly replaced by faster internet technologies.

BROADBAND MODEM:

DEFINTION:

A broadband modem is a device that provides high-speed internet through DSL, cable, or fiber.
It allows fast and uninterrupted online access.

USES:

 Provides high-speed internet access.

 Supports smooth web browsing and video streaming.
 Allows fast downloading and uploading of files.
 Enables online gaming with low lag.
 Connects multiple devices to the internet.
 Supports VoIP calls and video conferencing.
 Used for smart home device connectivity.

REPEATER:

DEFINTION:

A repeater is a device that strengthens and retransmits weak network signals to extend
coverage. It is used in wireless, fiber optic, and telephone networks for better connectivity.

USES:

 Extends Network Range: Boosts weak signals to cover larger areas.

 Improves Signal Strength: Enhances weak or lost signals for better connectivity.

 Reduces Data Loss: Ensures clear communication in wired and wireless networks.
HUB:

DEFINTION:

A hub is a network device that connects multiple computers or devices in a local network. It
receives data from one device and broadcasts it to all connected devices.

EXPLAINATION:

A hub is a network device that connects multiple computers or devices in a LAN. It receives data
from one device and broadcasts it to all others, without filtering. Since it sends data to all devices, it can
cause network congestion and is less efficient than a switch.

TRANSPARENT BRIDGE:

A transparent bridge in computer networks is a device that connects different network

segments and forwards data based on MAC addresses. It works without changing the data and is
"invisible" to connected devices, meaning they don’t need to know it exists. It helps in reducing traffic
and improving network performance by filtering and forwarding data efficiently. This bridge make use
two processes i.e bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

SOURCE ROUTING BRIDGE:

A source routing bridge is a type of network bridge that decides the path for data based on the
route provided by the sender. It is mainly used in Token Ring networks, where the sender includes the
complete path in the data packet. This helps in avoiding loops and ensures efficient delivery of data.

SWITCH:

A switch in computer networks is a device that connects multiple devices and directs data to the
correct destination using MAC addresses. It improves network speed by sending data only to the
intended device instead of broadcasting to all. The switch perform error checking before forwarding
data that make it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to correct port only.

Properties of a Switch:

1. MAC Address Learning – Learns and stores device addresses.

2. Packet Forwarding – Sends data only to the right device.
3. Collision Domain Separation – Reduces data traffic issues.
4. Full-Duplex Communication – Allows sending and receiving data at the same time.

GATEWAY:

In computer networks, a gateway is a device that connects two different networks and enables
communication between them. It works like a translator, converting data formats and protocols as
needed. Gateways are often used to link local networks to the internet. Gateway is also called a protocol
converters and can operate on data link layer.

BROUTER:

A brouter is a device that works as both a bridge and a router in a computer network. It can
forward data based on network addresses like a router and also connect different network types like a
bridge. Brouters help manage and direct traffic between networks more efficiently. It is capable of
filtering local area network traffic.

UNIT : 2 DATA LINK CONTROL

TYPES OF MAC ADRESSES:

UNICAST:

Unicast in MAC address means sending data from one device directly to one specific device
using its unique MAC address.

Example: A computer sends a file to a printer using the printer's MAC address — only that
printer gets the file.

MULTICAST:

Multicast means sending data from one device to a specific group of devices on the network at
the same time.

Example: A video stream sent to a group of computers in a classroom using a multicast MAC
address — only those in the group receive it.

BROADCAST:

Broadcast means sending data from one device to all devices on the same network.

Example: A computer sends a message to find other devices — all devices on the network
receive it.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STOP AND WAIT METHOD:

✅ Advantages:

1. Easy to use – The method is simple to understand and implement.

2. Reliable communication – Each packet is confirmed before sending the next.
3. Less memory needed – Only one packet is sent and stored at a time.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Slow data transfer – It waits for a reply before sending the next packet.
2. Wastes time – Idle time increases when the network is fast.
3. Not good for large data – It’s inefficient when sending big amounts of data.

SLIDING WINDOW:

Sliding Window (2-line Definition):

Sliding window is a method used in data transmission to control the flow of data.
It allows sending multiple packets before needing an acknowledgment for the first one.

Explanation (3 lines):
The sender can send several packets in a row, depending on the window size.
As acknowledgments are received, the window "slides" forward, allowing more packets to be
sent.
This helps use the network more efficiently and avoids waiting too long. Sliding window refers
to imaginary box at both the sender and receiver end.

Example:
If the window size is 3, the sender can send 3 packets (P1, P2, P3) without waiting. When it gets
acknowledgment for P1, it can send P4.

IMPORTANT KEYPOINTS:

 It lets the sender send multiple packets before needing an acknowledgment.

 It prevents the receiver from being overloaded with too much data.
 The window size controls how many packets can be sent at once.
 The window slides forward as acknowledgments are received.
 It ensures reliable delivery by resending only the lost packets.

SENDER WINDOW:
Sender Window (2-line Definition):
The sender window is the range of packets that the sender is allowed to send without waiting
for an acknowledgment. It helps the sender know which messages are sent and which are still
waiting for a reply.

Explanation (3 lines):
The sender window size controls how many unacknowledged packets can be in the network at
the same time.
As ACKs come in, the sender window slides forward, allowing more packets to be sent.
This keeps data flowing smoothly without stopping after each packet.

Example:
If the sender window size is 4, the sender can send packets 1 to 4. After getting ACK for packet
1, it can send packet 5.

Important Points (in easy words, 1 line each):

1. It controls how many packets the sender can send at once.

2. It slides forward when packets are acknowledged.
3. It helps avoid sending too much data at once.
4. It keeps track of sent but unacknowledged packets.
5. It improves data transfer speed and reliability.

RECIEVER WINDOW:

Receiver Window (2-line Definition):

Receiver window is the range of messages the receiver can handle at one time.
It tells the sender how many messages the receiver is ready to accept before waiting for an
acknowledgment.

Explanation (3 lines):
The receiver window size controls how much data the receiver can process without getting
overwhelmed.
As the receiver gets and processes messages, the window moves forward, allowing more
messages.
This helps prevent the receiver from getting too much data at once and ensures smooth
communication.
Example:
If the receiver window size is 2, the receiver can accept messages 1 and 2 at a time. After
processing message 1, it can accept message 3.

Important Points (in easy words, 1 line each):

1. It shows how many messages the receiver can handle at once.

2. It tells the sender how many messages to send.
3. It helps avoid overloading the receiver with too much data.
4. It moves forward when the receiver processes the messages.
5. It keeps the communication smooth and error-free.

ERROR DETECTION:

Error detection is a method used to find out if data has been changed, damaged, or lost while
being sent from one device to another. It helps the receiver check for any mistakes in the
received data. If an error is found, the receiver can ask the sender to resend the correct data.

ERROR CORRECTION:

Error correction is a way to fix mistakes in data that happen while it is being sent from one place to
another. It allows the receiver to find and correct the wrong parts of the data without needing to ask the
sender to send it again. This helps save time and keeps the communication smooth.

ARQ:

ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) is a method used to make sure data is received correctly.
If the data has an error, the receiver asks the sender to send it again.

FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION:

Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a method where the sender adds extra information to the data.
This helps the receiver find and fix errors without needing to ask for the data again.

ERROR DETECTION SCHEMES:

Error detection schemes are ways to find mistakes in data when it is sent from one device to another.
They add special bits or codes to the data to help check for errors.
If a mistake is found, the receiver can ask the sender to resend the data.

REPETITION SCHEMES:

The repetition scheme is an error correction method where the same data is sent multiple times to
ensure it’s received correctly. The receiver checks all the copies and picks the correct one if any
errors occur. Though simple, this method uses more bandwidth since it sends extra copies of the
same data.
UNIT : 6 INTERNETWORKING

INTRANET:

An intranet is a type of private network used within an organization.

It connects computers and devices to share information, tools, and resources securely.
Only authorized users within the organization can access it.

EXTRANET:

An extranet is a private network that allows controlled access to outsiders, like partners or clients.
It extends a company's intranet to trusted external users for sharing specific information.
This helps in secure collaboration between businesses or organizations.

INTERNET:

The internet is a huge global network that connects computers and devices all over the world. It
allows people to share information, communicate through messages or video calls, and access
websites, videos, games, and more. Anyone with an internet connection can use it to learn, work,
or have fun from almost anywhere.

APPLICATION LAYER:

The application layer is the top layer of the OSI model that directly interacts with the user. It
provides network services through applications like web browsers, email, and file transfer tools.
This layer helps users send and receive data over the network in a way that is easy to understand
and use.

Functions of the Application Layer in the OSI model are:

1. Provides network services to users – like email, file transfer, and web browsing.
2. Handles user interface – helps users interact with the network through applications.
3. Ensures proper data formatting – prepares data so it's understandable by receiving
applications.
4. Manages communication – supports services like authentication, data exchange, and
session management.
5. Delivers messages – ensures messages reach the right application on the receiving
device.

PRESENTATION LAYER:

The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI model that formats data so both sender and receiver
can understand it. It also takes care of data encryption, decryption, and compression to ensure secure
and efficient communication.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

 1. Data Translation – Converts data into a readable format for both sender and receiver.
2. Data Encryption/Decryption – Secures data by changing it into a secret code and back.
3. Data Compression – Reduces the size of data to send it faster.
4. Data Formatting – Organizes data in formats like text, images, or videos for proper use.

SESSION LAYER:

The session layer is the 5th layer of the OSI model that manages communication between two
devices.
It starts, controls, and ends the conversation or session between them.
It makes sure the connection stays active and organized during data exchange.

Functions of the Session Layer:

1. Session Establishment – Starts the connection between two devices.

2. Session Management – Keeps the communication organized and in order.
3. Session Termination – Ends the connection safely after data transfer is done.
4. Synchronization – Adds checkpoints to resume data transfer if interrupted.

TRANSPORT LAYER:

The transport layer is the 4th layer of the OSI model that moves data between devices.
It ensures the data is delivered correctly, completely, and in the right order.
It also manages errors and controls the flow of data during transmission.

THE TWO PROTOCOLS ARE USED IN THIS WAY ARE:

TCP:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a communication protocol used to send data over the internet.
It breaks data into small packets, sends them, and makes sure they arrive correctly and in order.
TCP is reliable because it checks for errors and resends lost data if needed.

UDP:

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communication protocol used to send data over the
internet.
Unlike TCP, it does not check for errors or guarantee delivery, making it faster but less reliable.
UDP is commonly used for activities like streaming, where speed is more important than perfect
accuracy.

Functions of the Transport Layer:

1. Data Segmentation – Breaks data into smaller packets for easier transmission.
2. Error Detection – Checks for errors in data and ensures accurate delivery.
3. Flow Control – Manages the speed of data transfer to avoid congestion.
 4. Reliable Delivery – Ensures data reaches its destination correctly and in order.
5. Connection Management – Establishes, maintains, and ends communication sessions.

NETWORK LAYER:

The network layer is the 3rd layer of the OSI model that is responsible for routing data from the
sender to the receiver across different networks.
It handles logical addressing, packet forwarding, and determines the best path for data to travel.
The most common protocol used in this layer is IP (Internet Protocol).

Functions of the Network Layer:

1. Routing – Finds the best path for data to travel from source to destination.
2. Logical Addressing – Assigns IP addresses to devices for identification.
3. Packet Forwarding – Sends data packets to the correct network or device.
4. Traffic Control – Manages data flow to prevent network congestion.
5. Fragmentation – Breaks large data packets into smaller ones for easier transmission.

DATA LINK LAYER:

The data link layer is the 2nd layer of the OSI model, responsible for transferring data between
devices on the same network.
It packages raw bits from the physical layer into frames and ensures reliable data transfer.
This layer also handles error detection and correction during transmission.

Functions of the Data Link Layer:

1. Framing – Packages raw data into frames for easier transmission.

2. Error Detection – Identifies and corrects errors in transmitted data.
3. Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent congestion.
4. Media Access Control – Controls access to the physical transmission medium (like
Ethernet).
5. Link Establishment – Establishes and maintains a reliable connection between devices.

PHYSICAL LAYER:

The physical layer is the 1st layer of the OSI model, responsible for transmitting raw bits over a physical
medium like cables or wireless signals.
It defines the hardware elements, such as cables, switches, and network cards, needed for
communication.
This layer deals with the electrical, optical, or radio signals that carry data.

Functions of the Physical Layer:

1. Signal Transmission – Sends raw bits over physical mediums like cables or airwaves.
2. Bit Representation – Converts data into electrical, optical, or radio signals.
 3. Data Encoding – Transforms digital data into a format suitable for transmission.
4. Physical Medium Control – Manages the physical connections between devices (e.g.,
cables, connectors).
5. Transmission Speed Control – Determines the rate at which data is transmitted.

TCP/IP:
APPLICATION LAYER:

The application layer in the TCP/IP model is the top layer that helps users interact with network
services.
It includes programs like web browsers, email, and file transfer tools.
This layer handles data presentation and communication between apps over the internet.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used to transfer web pages over the
internet.
It allows browsers and servers to communicate and exchange data.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used to send emails from one device to
another over the internet.
It helps move emails from the sender's mail server to the receiver's mail server.

DNS (Domain Name System) is like the phonebook of the internet.

It changes website names (like google.com) into IP addresses that computers use to find each
other.

TELNET is a network protocol used to connect to remote computers over the internet.
It lets users control a computer from far away, like they’re using it directly.

TRANSPORT LAYER:

The transport layer in the TCP/IP model is responsible for sending data between devices reliably.
It breaks data into small pieces, checks for errors, and makes sure everything arrives in the right order.
Protocols like TCP and UDP work at this layer.

INTERNET LAYER:

The internet layer in the TCP/IP model is responsible for moving data across different
networks.
It decides the best path for data to travel using IP addresses.
The main protocol used in this layer is IP (Internet Protocol).

FOLLOWING ARE THE PROTOCOLS USED IN THIS LAYER ARE:

IP PROTOCOL:
IP (Internet Protocol) is the main protocol in the internet layer of the TCP/IP model.
It helps send data from one device to another by using IP addresses.
IP also decides the best route for the data to reach its destination.

ARP PROTOCOL:

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to find the physical address (MAC address) of a
device using its IP address on a local network.
It helps devices communicate with each other by matching IP addresses to their hardware
addresses.

ARP REQUEST:

An ARP request is sent to find the MAC address of a device using its IP address on a local network.
The device with the matching IP address responds with its MAC address.

ARP RELPY:

An ARP reply is the response sent by a device after receiving an ARP request.
It provides the MAC address associated with the requested IP address to the requesting device.

NETWORK LAYER:

The network layer in the TCP/IP model is responsible for sending data between different
networks. It finds the best route for the data to travel from the sender to the receiver. This layer
includes IP (Internet Protocol), which helps identify devices using IP addresses.

ICMP PROTOCOL:

STATIC ROUTING:

Static routing is a type of routing where network paths are manually configured by the network
administrator. These routes remain fixed and do not change unless manually updated.