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Magnetism and Matter Goes Hard

The document discusses the principles of magnetism and matter, focusing on magnetic dipoles, magnetic fields, and the behavior of different materials in magnetic fields. It explains concepts such as magnetic dipole moment, torque on magnetic dipoles, and the classification of materials into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic based on their magnetic properties. Additionally, it covers hysteresis, permanent magnets, and electromagnets, detailing their characteristics and applications.

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7 views11 pages

Magnetism and Matter Goes Hard

The document discusses the principles of magnetism and matter, focusing on magnetic dipoles, magnetic fields, and the behavior of different materials in magnetic fields. It explains concepts such as magnetic dipole moment, torque on magnetic dipoles, and the classification of materials into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic based on their magnetic properties. Additionally, it covers hysteresis, permanent magnets, and electromagnets, detailing their characteristics and applications.

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dudegamer123321
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Magnetism and Matter Current loop as a magnetic dipole Consider a current carrying circular loop of radius R. Magnetic field at a distance x from the centre of the loop is given by, pole 2(R2+ x2)2 Ifx >> R, Radius of the loop can be neglected Therefore the equation will become, = Hol R2 2x Multiplying with 2x in the numerator and denominator, tol eR? a? ol 24 nx” Where A is the area of the coil. The product of current and area is called magnetic dipole moment 7 Substituting magnetic dipole moment in the above equation, = ie oF g-4 ne This equation is similar to the field produced at a point on the axis of an electric dipole. Thus, a current carrying planar loop behaves like a magnetic dipole of dipole moment ii. At a point on the equatorial plane Bm m am xt Coulomb's law of magnetic force (Deleted) This law states that the force of attraction of repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. F = amide Where qni and qn2 are the pole strengths of the magnetic poles. Note. A unit magnetic pole is defined as that pole which when placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre from an identical pole repels it with a force of 107 N. Magnetic dipole and magnetic dipole moment In electricity, the fundamental structure that can exist is a point charge. In magnetism, isolated magnetic poles do not exist. The simplest structure that can exist is a magnetic dipole, An arrangement of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance is called a magnetic dipole. The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as the product of its pole strength and magnetic length. = m2 It is a vector quantity directed from S — pole to N - pole. SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am? or JT“! Magnetic field at an axial point of a bar magnet (Qualitative treatment) Consider a magnetic dipole of pole strength qm. Magnetic field at point P due to the north pole, Ho Im B= te ODP Magnetic field at P due to south pole B, = Lo 4m _ 2 an + D? Net magnetic field at P, B=B,-B: = Hod an = fon ( ant — Ho 2r2lam ~ an GF = PA fo 2rm 4a (2? = PP Ifr>>l My 2rm 4 rt Ho 2m mn The direction of magnetic field is in the direction of magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic field at an equatorial plane of a bar magnet (Qualitative treatment) ee Consider a point P on the equatorial plane of the dipole. Magnetic field at P due to north pole, Ho B= 1 an Magnetic field due to south pole p= Mo = an Clearly magnitude of magnetic field at P due to north pole is equal to the magnetic field due to south pole. If we resolve the magnetic field into its components, component of Bi and B2 along the equatorial plane will cancel each other, the component parallel to axial line will get added up. Resultant magnetic field at P Ho Gm 6 an re BO Substituting for cos0 from the triangle SPO Ho _ Im t 5 an r+ a4 _m Ban Ifr<>a and r>>x Then [(r — x)? + a]? = Therefore dp —Hondela? ar Total magnetic field due to the solenoid B= f dp ~ firmness ha na? pl a [i ax Integrating Monta? per BH MMe [ltt Applying the limits p= Hon lez at ae Multiplying with 2m in the numerator and denominator p= #02020 na) ar Ha 2m (Magnet dipole moment, m = (n 20) (I na?) an 7 ; This is also the far axial magnetic field of a bar magnet. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields. Thus, a current carrying solenoid behaves like a magnetic dipole. Gauss’s law in magnetism Gauss’s law in magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. fB.ds=0 Terms used to describe magnetic properties of materials Magnetisation Magnetic moment developed per unit volume of a material when placed ina magnetising field is called intensity of magnetisation. M v SL unit Am! Magnetic intensity (Magnetising field intensity) It is defined as the number of ampere-turns (nl) flowing round the unit length of the solenoid required to produce the given magnetising field. Magnetic permeability The magnetic permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction (B) to magnetic intensity (H). z eS SI unit TmA! Relative permeability Itis defined as the ratio of the permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space. a ry Magnetic susceptibility It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation to the magnetising field intensity. M “i Susceptibility is the ratio of two quantities having the same units, so it has no unit Xn Relation between magnetic susceptibility and magnetic permeability Ifa magnetic material is subjected to a magnetising field, magnetic induction developed in the material, B= Bo+ Bn B= o(H +M) WH wy(H + M) HH= (Hl + XmH) H= Ho(1 + Xm) we fe 7 At Am) Diamagnetic substances Diamagnetic substance are those which develop feeble magnetisation in the opposite direction of the magnetising field. Such substances are repelled by the magnets and tend to move from stronger to weaker parts of a magnetic field. Example: Bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride. Paramagnetic substances Paramagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetisation in the direction of the magnetising field. Such substances are feebly attracted by magnets and tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field. Example: Aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride. Ferromagnetic substances Ferromagnetic substances are those which develop strong magnetisation in the direction of the magnetising filed. They are strongly attracted by magnets and tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field. Example: Iron, Nickle, Cobalt Gadolinium and alloys like alnico. Origin of Diamagnetism Electrons in an atom orbiting around nucleus possess orbital angular momentum. These orbiting electrons are equivalent to current-carrying loop and thus possess orbital magnetic moment, Diamagnetic substances are the ones in which resultant magnetic moment in an atom is zero, When magnetic field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the same direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic moment in direction opposite to that of the applied {field and hence repulsion. Diamagnetism is present in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc. Superconductors exhibits both perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect Origin of Paramagnetism The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account of the ceaseless random thermal motion of the atoms, no net magnetisation is seen. In the presence of an external field Bo, which is strong enough, and at low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be made to align and point in the same direction as Bo. Curie’s law Intensity of magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is directly proportional to then magnetising field and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Bo Mas 7 Where C is called curies constant. HoH Hoc BO Xm c at 0 Ym = CF Curie's law states that far away from saturation, susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Origin of Ferromagnetism (Domain theo The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material. However, they interact with one another in such a way that they spontaneously align themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called domain. Each domain has a net magnetisation. In an external magnetic field, all domains align themselves along the direction of the field leading to the strong magnetisation of the material along the direction of the field. Ina ferromagnetic material the field lines are highly concentrated, In non-uniform magnetic field, the sample tends to move towards the region of high field. When the external field is removed. In some ferromagnetic materials the magnetisation persists. Such materials are called hard magnetic materials. or hard ferromagnets. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt and copper, is one such material. The naturally occurring lodestone is another. Ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on removal of the external field. Soft iron is one such material. Such materials are called soft ferromagnetic materials. When a ferromagnetic sample is heated, its magnetisation decreases due to increase in the randomisation of the domains. At sufficiently high temperature, the domain structure disintegrates and the ferromagnetic substance become paramagnetic. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is called curie temperature or curie point Te Above curie point ie, in the paramagnetic phase, This is modified curie’s law for a ferromagnetic material. This law states that the susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance above its Curie temperature is inversely proportional to the excess of temperature above the curie temperature. Semel sl Effect of | They are febly replied by | They are fecby attracted by | They so ecpety sea i eects magnets, | magnets. _ y magnets. | (2. | tn extemal Acquire feuble magnetisa- | Acquire feeble magnetisa- | Acquire strong magnetisa | *|Megree'iat | o'inne oppose ace | fon the Gren ofthe | Hon in the cretion of th | ofthe matin ll | mating fk —__| magnets eld. ———_ 3] a vormijorn [Tend to move slowly from | Tend to move slowly from | Tend to move quickly from, magnetic eld” | stronger to weaker parts of | weaker to stronger parts of | weaker to stronger parts of | come the fel Pen Ot the fl fil. —_— ‘dint e freely suspended ferro- | Tira form | A freely suspended diamag- | A rely suspended fi peed rrama—| tatcsdaitghm™™ | Antone tans | agate alee tl perpendicular to the field. | itself parallel to the field. _| parallel to Ls | i na susceptibility is very large | 5: | Susceplblty | Susceptibility fs small and | Susceptibility is small and | Susceptibility is very Jette) [negative =e 79 <0) | pone Og |__ He u.), 7 — - } 7: | Permedbiity |< re ny | {ose () —_-————adepew | Sump wanke —|Sucepiy daca eee Susceptty fe edcPer erly as temperate : | with temperature ina | Fferdure | dent temperature. inversely a8 temper {th emp | In |e : T | were | r TMagnetisation lasts as | As Soon as the magnetising | Magnetisation is retained | |] Rewer get ung asthe maging | fel ie removed, ogre’ | ove afer the magnetsing a field is applied. __| sation is lost. | field is removed. | t TM changes linearly with H. | M changes linearly with H | M changes with H non- | 32 | Yaron of 4 | M changes nery dha’ attains saturation at linearly and uliately } jet | low temperature and in | attains saturation. | | __|very strong fields | | + Geecor shows no hystersis | Bvector shows no hysteresis | Bvedtor shows hysteresis. Ta | street | Bvecor show is =a Se 42. | Physic! state of liquid or gs. Sold, liquid or gas | Soom sai ont | the material 1 a - ‘ALNa Ca O,@tSTP) CuCl, | Fe Ni,Co,GaFe,0,,Alnica 13. | Examples | ,{@tSTP),CuCl, 0; | Hysteresis The phenomenon of the lagging of magnetic induction behind the magnetising field is called hysteresis. When a ferromagnetic sample is placed in a magnetising field, the sample gets magnetised by induction. The relation between B and in H ferromagnetic materials is complex. It is often not linear and it depends on the magnetic history of the sample. Let the material be unmagnetised initially. We place it in a solenoid and increase the current through the solenoid, The magnetic field B in the material rises and saturates as depicted in the curve oa. This behaviour represents the alignment and merger of domains until no further enhancement is possible. It is pointless to increase the current (and hence the magnetic intensity H) beyond this. Next, we decrease H and reduce it to zero. At H = 0, B + 0. This is represented by the curve ab, The value of B at H = 0 is called retentivity or remanence, The domains are not completely randomised even though the external driving field has been removed. Next, the current in the solenoid is reversed and slowly increased, Certain domains are flipped until the net field inside stands nullified. This is represented by the curve be. The value of H at c is called coercivity. The value of reverse magnetising field intensity required for the residual magnetism of a sample to become zero is called coercivity. The reversed current is increased in magnitude, we once again obtain saturation. The curve ed depicts this. Next, the current is reduced (curve de) and reversed (curve ea). The cycle repeats itself. Note: The area within the B-H loop represents the energy dissipated per unit volume in the material when it is carried through a cycle of magnetisation. Permanent magnets and electromagnets Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property for a long period of time are called permanent magnets The material used for making permanent magnet should have high retentivity so that the magnet is strong and high coercivity so that the magnetisation is not erased by stray magnetic fields, temperature fluctuations or minor mechanical damage. Further, the material should have a high permeability, Steel is one-favoured choice. It has a slightly smaller retentivity than Soft iron but this is outweighed by the much smaller coercivity of soft iron. Other suitable materials for permanent magnets are alnico, cobalt steel and ticonal. Core of electromagnets are made of ferromagnetic materials which have high permeability and low retentivity, Soft iron is a suitable material for electromagnets. On placing a soft iron rod in a solenoid and passing a current, we increase the magnetism of the solenoid by a thousand fold. When we switch off the solenoid current, the magnetism is effectively switched off since the soft iron core has a low retentivity In certain applications, the material goes through an ac cycle of magnetisation for a long period. This is the case in transformer cores and telephone diaphragms. The hysteresis curve of such materials must be narrow. The energy dissipated and the heating will consequently be small. The material must have a high resistivity to lower eddy current losses.

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