Table of Contents

UNIT ONE: NEWS AND NEWS VALUES .......................................................................................... 3

DEFINITION OF NEWS ................................................................................................................... 3
News Values ................................................................................................................................... 3
Writing news articles .................................................................................................................... 4
Structure of a news story/news article ........................................................................................ 5
The body of a news story .............................................................................................................. 7
FEATURE STORIES ......................................................................................................................... 8
Writing a Feature Lead ................................................................................................................ 9
Writing a feature story ............................................................................................................... 10
NEWS SOURCES ............................................................................................................................ 11
INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................................................. 12
Checking Source’s credibility .................................................................................................... 13
Finding Sources ........................................................................................................................... 13
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 13
References ......................................................................................................................................... 15
UNIT 2: WRITING FOR BROADCAST MEDIA ............................................................................... 15
RADIO AND TELEVISION ............................................................................................................ 16
PRINCIPLES OF SCRIPT WRITING ............................................................................................. 17
Writing for radio ......................................................................................................................... 17
Key Principles.............................................................................................................................. 18
Writing to video........................................................................................................................... 19
Additional elements on video script writing ............................................................................. 19
Format of a video script.............................................................................................................. 20
Types of TV stories ..................................................................................................................... 21
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 22
References ......................................................................................................................................... 22
UNIT THREE: BEAT REPORTING ................................................................................................... 23
DEFINING BEATS .......................................................................................................................... 23
Types of Beats .............................................................................................................................. 23
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................ 28
References ......................................................................................................................................... 28
UNIT FOUR: REGULATION OF THE MASS MEDIA: INFORMAL AND FORMAL CONTROL
.............................................................................................................................................................. 29
INFORMAL CONTROLS................................................................................................................ 29

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 FORMAL CONTROLS .................................................................................................................... 33
LAWS AFFECTING THE REPORTER .......................................................................................... 34
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 39
References ......................................................................................................................................... 39
UNIT FIVE: WRITING FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS, ADVERTISING AND MARKETING ......... 40
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC RELATIONS, ADVERTISING AND MARKETING ...... 41
How does public relations differ from adverting? ................................................................... 41
How does public relations differ from marketing? ........................................................................... 41
How does marketing differ from advertising? ......................................................................... 41
WRITING FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS .......................................................................................... 41
Public Relations Tactics.............................................................................................................. 41
WRITING FOR ADVERTISING ..................................................................................................... 45
Advertising techniques ............................................................................................................... 45
Television Advertising ................................................................................................................ 46
WRITING FOR MARKETING........................................................................................................ 46
Marketing platforms or Tools .................................................................................................... 47
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 47
References ......................................................................................................................................... 48

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UNIT ONE: NEWS AND NEWS VALUES
Objectives
After reading this unit students should be able to:
1. Define news.
2. Write newsworthy stories.
3. Know the importance of the Inverted Pyramid Style.
4. Identify the various sources of news.
5. Write good feature stories.
6. Know the importance of the rectangular block when writing feature stories.
7. Distinguish news articles from feature stories.

DEFINITION OF NEWS
News can be defined as anything that is new. It is an account of an event that has
just happened.
The event is usually recent, fresh or not known earlier. News can be looked at as
both a product and a point of view. As a product, news is gathered, processed,
packaged and then presented to the audience. As a point of view news can be
packaged from the reporter’s point of view or the editor’s point of view i.e. they
can influence the audience’s understanding of news.
News will lose its newsworthiness with the passing of days. In other words what
is news today may not be news tomorrow, next week or next month. Therefore it
is important that news should be released in the timeliness that is necessary.

News Values
For someone to determine the newsworthiness of an issue, he is guided by the
news values. For one to know that this is news, his story must exhibit the
following elements:
1. Timelines – News must be reported as soon as possible. According to
Filack (2019), people want to know what is happening around them at any
given point in time, and they want to know before anyone else does.

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 2. Proximity/Nearness/Neighbourliness – What happens near you is more
newsworthy than what happens far away from you.
3. Prominence – People who are famous are naturally news makers. Such
people include politicians, musicians, business tycoons etc. Most of the
times what they say or do becomes news
4. Oddity/Unusualness – when someone does something odd or unusual, it
becomes news. For example some five years ago there was a story which
said that a mortuary attendant had raped a corpse. This is quite unusual, so
it was news. Mysteries such as strange diseases are also newsworthy. It is
their uncommonness that will make them newsworthy.
5. Human interest – Something that interests the audience is also newsworthy.
6. Conflict – When people are fighting we must consider it news. Examples
of conflicts include celebrity feuds, social media wars by prominent people
(Filack, 2019). Civil wars, tribal fighting or conflicts between
organizations are also newsworthy.
7. Impact – An issue which is affecting a lot of people is newsworthy. For
example when the Malawi energy regulatory authority raises its fuel prices
it becomes news because it impacts on a larger population.
8. Novelty/Humour – If something is entertaining, it is newsworthy.

Writing news articles

Writing news stories is not an easy task. The challenge is to provide information
that is clear, objective, fair, balanced and accurate yet stick to principles of
effective writing and journalistic style. News writing is an art that gets better with
practicing. It also gets better with time (Just as they say (“old wine tastes better”).
I have to say that when I was still a student doing journalism, I thought that I had
done it all in as far as news writing was concerned. I was wrong! When I started
working for the main stream media, I discovered I had a lot to learn. The more I
wrote the better my stories became. This attests to the fact that course work can
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teach you the science of news writing but you need cases and real life situations
to perfect your writing (which I call “the art of news writing”). Science wants us
to know how to write news stories while art wants us to do it. For someone to be
a successful writer he or she needs to know as well as do it the right way. The
most important thing, however, is to get your facts right because if you do not do
that, lawsuits will be coming your way every time you write a story.

Under normal circumstances your news articles must answer the following
questions:
Who – is involved in your story?
When -- did it happen?
What -- happened?
Where -- did it happen?
Why – did it happen?
How -- did it happen?
We call these questions the five W’s and one H. These questions are the hallmark
or seal of a well packaged news item.

Structure of a news story/news article

The general style of writing a news item is the Inverted Pyramid. With this style
you start with the most important information and end with the least important.
This means that the lead (first paragraph) of a news article contains the most
important information on the topic while the last paragraph contains the least
important details. The lead is also known as the intro. The lead should try to
answer all or as many of the six questions as possible. Your lead should not be
more than 30 words.

There are many types of leads. Some of them are as follows:

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1. Name lead – It mentions the name of the person involved in the news. The
name is particularly mentioned when the person is important. The name is
usually put at the beginning e.g. President Peter Johnstone said yesterday
the government would … or Ombudsman Samuel Phiri will unveil the…
2. Question lead – Asks an important question e.g. Would you like to have
your own house at an affordable loan scheme? African Business bank is
your answer.
3. Quote lead – You can use a quotation if what someone has said is
interesting or important for your article e.g. “We went to his house around
2 in the morning. He was asleep so we just picked all his money and left”.
This could be a statement coming from a thief who broke into someone’s
house.
4. Suspense lead – It is sometimes known as featurised lead. It is mostly used
in feature stories. Details on the topic are not given in the first paragraph
but the subsequent ones e.g. It was an interesting event that the audience
filled the auditorium four hours before the guest of honour had arrived.
5. Contrast lead – You compare two different situations in order to bring out
the focus of the story e.g. While the government is trying to end child
labour in the country, Alcasius Estate has just recruited twenty eight
children under the age of 15 to work on its tobacco farms.
6. Staccato lead – You use short pointed sentences (stop and start) e.g. He
came. He conquered. People may not see him for a while but he has left an
indelible mark in the hearts of many.
7. Summary lead – This is the most common type of lead used by reporters
in Malawi. It summarizes all the important details on the topic e.g. The
Minister of Finance John Phiri said yesterday that the government would
not fund this year’s Inter-College Football Games because the proposal
was submitted late to Treasury. This was revealed during the meeting he
had with University Registrars in Lilongwe.

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 The problem with the above lead is that it has more than 30 words. Can
you, therefore, work on it and reduce the words to 20 or less?
8. “You” lead (Direct address lead) – This lead addresses the audience
directly e.g. Mzuzu University has organized a big walk with the aim of
raising money for the Mzuzu Central Hospital Eye Clinic, and you should
attend.

The body of a news story

 The body is the part that follows the lead.
 Generally it presents information in descending order.
 It starts with the most important information and ends with the least
important i.e. the least important information is put in the last paragraph (if
at all it is used).
 The body of a news story follows the Inverted Pyramid Style (IPS) as
shown below:

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  The top broad base of the pyramid above represents the most important
information while the bottom tip represents the least important details.
 The inverted pyramid requires that you place the most newsworthy
information at the beginning and the least newsworthy information at the
end.
 When you use the inverted pyramid style, the lead summarizes the details
on the topic and the subsequent paragraphs presents additional information
about names, descriptions, quotations, conflicting view points,
explanations and background information in descending order.
 The primary advantage of using the inverted pyramid style is that if
someone stops reading or listening to a story after two or three paragraphs,
that person will have learnt the story’s most important details. In addition,
if the story is too long and there is no enough space, the editor can shorten
it by removing one or two paragraphs from the end of the story without
necessarily affecting its details.
 The story that follows the IPS rarely contains any surprises as all the most
important details are revealed in the first paragraph.

FEATURE STORIES
 A feature story is an article which finds its impact outside or beyond
straight news.
 One characteristic that distinguishes a feature story from straight news is
its human interest. Human interest stories stir our emotions. They establish
an emotional contact quickly and are soft news.
 A very simple thing can make a feature story.
 Human interest stories are about people. Human interest stories appeal to
emotions such as fear, sorrow, happiness etc.

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  Features fall between straight news and fiction. Unlike fiction, facts of a
feature story are solid and represent solid reporting technic. They have
news values even though they are not timely.
 They give the reader insight and understanding of the situation or person
that might not be included in the straight news.
 They demand more creativity and call for a wide range of writing skills.
 Feature stories may entertain, motivate and teach by example.
Writing a Feature Lead
 Unlike a news article, the feature lead is not necessarily aimed at
summarizing the important facts of the topic. Rather, it is aimed at
stimulating the reader’s interest, getting his or her attention.
 The body of a feature story interprets facts i.e. expresses an opinion on
them.
 When writing a feature story, keep verbs of attribution such as what and
what? to a minimum i.e. internalize most of the information.
 All parts of a feature story are equally important. The shape therefore is a
Rectangular Pillar as seen in the diagram below:

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  The conclusion is also important. It should leave the reader with a definite
attitude to the subject of a feature.

Writing a feature story

In a feature story, the writer explains the significance of a particular development
or event. News stories are written on the basis of facts gathered from the spot or
collected from several other sources. You would have seen that most news events
are forgotten after they appear in newspapers. However, there are certain news
events, which are of great importance in several ways. Besides, there are many
issues on which if a particular development takes place, several avenues open up
for further reporting. For example if the Minister of Foreign Affairs travels to
Tanzania today to negotiate with the Tanzanian government on the long standing
issue of the boundary between the two countries, someone can simply write a
news article on it while the another may choose to do a feature story. A news
article will simply say that the minister has gone to Tanzania to negotiate with
the Tanzanian government on the boundary question. A feature story will say,
“The Minister’s journey to Tanzania is an important break-through in
normalizing relations between the two countries. As is well known, there are
numerous bilateral issues between Malawi and Tanzania, which are waiting for a
solution. So, this visit is believed to be of great importance”. A feature story of
this event will explain to the reader the plethora of problems that could be tackled
or the extent to which pending matters between the two countries could be sorted
out by the goodwill that will flow from the Minister’s trip. A feature story goes
beyond straight news.

A feature story is generally done as follows: general introduction relating to the

news development, when and how it happened, why and due to what reasons it
took place, putting it in proper perspective. Explaining the significance with
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historical perspective, quoting facts and figures, giving names, quotes, data and
events which led to the present development follow. Then, forecasting the
possible future developments, the reasons for these developments, persons behind
these developments, and the ultimate solution or the final shape of things to come
as a result of the new turn of events.

NEWS SOURCES
There are three types of sources:
 Human sources – These comprise experts, victims and certain interest
groups.
 Documentary sources – These include policy documents, research papers,
manifestos, advertising materials etc.
 Direct observation – The reporter observes what is happening e.g. during
demonstrations.
Our focus however will be on human sources.

Human sources
There are three types under human sources namely; experts, victims and certain
interest groups.
a. Experts
 They give facts or informed opinions on issues.
 They have their own jargon.
 They are professionals in a particular field.
 You can translate their language but make sure the meaning is not lost in
translation.
 You can make an interesting headline out of their jargon.
b. Victims

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  These are people who are the subject of misfortunes e.g. in accidents, rape
cases, human trafficking etc.
 Do not ask them what they do not know.
 Do not victimize them further.
 Their information can be used for personal experience.
c. Certain interest groups
 These are people like politicians, NGOs, football supporters and players
etc.
 Do not let them manipulate facts.
 Confront them with your own knowledge.
 If it is a controversial issue, take the opposite stand.
 Confront them with good arguments contrary to what they think.
How to use Human Sources
 Prepare your key points on which your interview will be based.
 Begin by asking the most important questions so that if time runs out you
will already have obtained useful information.
 Read the motive of the source i.e. does he or she have a certain interest in
the matter?
 When it is not possible to confirm a fact, do not use it.
 Attribute whatever you report to your sources, but also protect them where
necessary.
 Know what to quote or what to use for background.
 Never agree to show the story to your source before broadcasting or
publishing it.
 Some sources do not want to give information. Try to convince them that
it is in their own interest and in the interest of the general public to do so.

INTERVIEWS
There are three kinds of interviews and these are:
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 a. On the Record
 Everything said by the source can be used by the reporter.
b. Off the record
 This should only be used for background.
 It should always be conducted in rare cases.
 It is usually used for your personal interest.
c. Not for attribution
 It is rarely used.
 It is used when the source does not want to be mentioned.
 Negotiate for what to use e.g. senior official.
Checking Source’s credibility
 Check previous reliability i.e. whether he proved accurate.
 Confirm with other sources e.g. documents.
 Check the motive of the source.
 Compare information with known facts.
 Make sure the source is stable or rational.
Finding Sources
 Build your own network of sources.
 File all names of people you have interviewed.
 Use your own network of sources to find other sources i.e. do they know
other possible sources?
 Make a mind map to create a list of sources.
 Ask for document sources (if they have).

Review Questions
1. What is news?
2. Briefly explain any three types of news leads.
3. What is the difference between news articles and feature stories?
4. Explain any two types of news sources.
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5. Imagine Mzuzu University management held a meeting with the executive
committee of MUSREC in the Boardroom during which the following
details were revealed:
a. The Vice Chancellor said that due to the fact that some students fail to

complete paying their school fees in time, from the 2019/2020 academic
year all students will be required to pay the whole amount at the
beginning of the first semester. No installments shall be allowed.
b. All students who fail to pay the whole amount at the beginning of the

first semester will not be registered. They will be allowed to withdraw

from college and come back in the following academic year.
c. If a student fails to raise enough fees so that he can reregister in the

following year, he shall have her place forfeited.

d. In part the Vice Chancellor’s said “It is unfortunate that some students

fail to complete paying their school fees in time. In the next academic
year we want to do things in a different way. No student shall be allowed
to register if he or she fails to pay the whole amount at once. The
university relies on your fees to buy teaching and learning resources.
Failure to pay your fees means the university’s activities are paralyzed.
The government subvention is not enough to cater for all our
undertakings”.
e. MUSREC, however, asked management to reconsider its decision.

According to them, many students come from very poor families which
fail to mobilize enough resources to allow them pay fees at once.
Management responded in this way: “When you are applying for a
place, the advert clearly indicates that you must provide proof of
funding. You all provide this proof, but once you are admitted you fail
to pay your fees”
f. After the meeting was over, MUSREC president addressed fellow

students where he explained the management’s decision.

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 g. Students agreed to take up the issue with the government. A student

called Chifundo Amos advised MUSREC to seek legal redress should

the government fail to help them.
Based on the above information, write a story to be published in one of
the local newspapers. In your story use the “Summary Lead”.

6. Write a feature story on “The Plight of Needy Students at Mzuzu

University”. Your story should be supported by relevant sources.
7. Explain the differences between writing for radio and writing for television
t.

References
Filack, V. (2019). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (2nd Ed.).
Washington DC: Sage Publications.

Filack, V. (2016). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (1st Ed.).
California: Sage Publications.

Dominick, J. (2011). Dynamics of mass media writing: Media in transition.

(11th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

UNIT 2: WRITING FOR BROADCAST MEDIA

Objectives

After reading this unit students should be able to:

1. Explain the differences between writing for radio and writing for
television.

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 2. Write radio and TV scripts.
3. Produce different types of TV stories.

RADIO AND TELEVISION

Radio and television, just like newspapers, are mass communication media. Radio
and television belong to the broadcast media. The difference between the three is
that newspaper stories are written to be read, radio articles are written to be heard
while television stories are not only written to be heard but also to be viewed.
Television stories comprise audio (sound) and visuals (pictures). When writing
for broadcast media, it is important to consider the following principles:

1. Writing Concisely

In broadcast, the idea of keeping things simple is about using the right words in
the right places at the right times. This is guided by an acronym KISS “Keep it
short and simple”. Broadcast sentences range from eight to fifteen words.

2. Writing to be heard

Writing to be heard can be described as speaking from ones script in a clear a

way/manner that can be easily understood by the audience. This is what happens
in broadcast where the audience/listener has a chance of listening to the presenter.

The presenter therefore has to use common words that are used in their most
familiar ways by the audience to easily digest. Use short sentences that contain
one idea each. Use words that have auditory component to them.

In broadcast, people use their ears to consume the content and then process what
they have just heard before they think about it. They do not get a chance to stop
and think about what they heard before the next content arrives.

This way of writing differs from the writing for print because it also differs from
the way the text is received. In print (newspaper, print ads, web stories, press

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releases) the information is transmitted in a written form. People read the content
with their eyes and then think of what they have just read to get the meaning.

3. Writing to be spoken

Broadcast writing is meant to be spoken on one end and heard on the other. The
form of writing is therefore supposed to reflect how we wish we would speak if
we were to stop and collect our thoughts before saying each sentence.

If you write a broadcast copy well, any broadcaster can pick it up and read it
properly with little practice. The goal is to make the writing as universal as
possible for the journalists. To do this you can use simple words like “children”
instead of “kids” and use accurate approximations for complex numbers e.g.
“Almost 2000 people have been killed in a road accident that happened…”
instead of 1997 people have been killed in a road accident that happened…”.

The writing also needs to build in spaces for the person reading the news to easily
breathe. Use short sentences and in a conversational structure so that breathing
becomes a natural part of the delivery.

PRINCIPLES OF SCRIPT WRITING

Script writing is putting together the necessary information gathered on a
particular topic. It is a framework of your story and helps the anchor to avoid
going off the subject. The purpose of a script is to make the story easy for the
anchor or reporter to read aloud.

Writing a radio script differs from writing a television script because in radio
people will concentrate on audio only without visuals. So when coming up with
a radio script choose the language and structure properly.

Writing for radio

Radio journalism is like story telling – it is a conversation, therefore radio
scripting is a tool that helps a reporter to tell his or her story.

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  Write as you speak, in simple language. Avoid highly specialized terms
unless they are explained.
 Test your scripts as you write. Practice reading aloud what you are writing.
 Use precise, clear language; the text/sentence/story should follow a logical
order and be easy to follow.
 Write for one listener as you speak – do as if you are speaking to one person
not a group of people.
 Write news thoughtfully, news or documentary has to be presented slowly
and in chunks. News is heavy and usually difficult to digest therefore do
not overload your listener.
 Do not overload your text with a lot of information.
 Think for the listener rather than yourself. Assess your script from the
position of the listener.
 Simplify or round up numbers for example say almost 19 million people
rather 18 805 000.
 Avoid abstractions. Show and do not tell-visualize your story. Make a
listener have a picture of what you are saying.
 Write short sentences using active voice for instance, “People trafficking
is the world’s fastest growing criminal business”. NOT “The world’s
fastest growing criminal business is considered to be people trafficking”.
 Titles go before names e.g. Minister of Finance John Phiri says….

Key Principles
1. It is spoken – the broadcast style must be natural, therefore when writing
use the commonly used words in the society. Do not write a literary , rather
everyday speech.
2. It is immediate – for Radio and TV, information is considered to be
immediate. Therefore the scripts are written in immediate format.
Broadcast is a NOW medium, so emphasize the present tense wherever

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 possible e.g. “Mzuzu University Vice Chancellor John Saka says the
university expects to…” Not “Mzuzu University Vice Chancellor John
Saka said the university expects to…” Use active words rather than
passive ones e.g. Say “President Symon Phiri has fired Finance Minister
John Banda over allegations that… Not “Finance Minister John Banda has
been fired by President Symon Phiri over allegations that…”
3. It is person to person – writing for radio and TV must be informal. It is
YOU AND ME media. When you are delivering your script adopt a
friendly tone. Use language your audience usually speak and understand.
This helps in creating large listenership/viewership base.
4. It is heard once – use simple and short sentences with easy to understand
words/grammar. In radio and TV the script is mostly heard once unlike in
print media so do not complicate your sentences because your listener does
not have time to digest difficult text.
5. It is sound/picture – scripts are delivered in a form of sound for radio and
pictures for TV. Therefore, deliver your script in the most palatable
manner.

Writing for video

This is where the reporters use video and spoken words to augment and support
each other. Writing to video allows members of the audience to engage the
content fully without confusion.

When you do not have supporting video, you run into a familiar broadcast
journalism error/problem called wallpaper video. Wallpaper journalism is the use
of generic visual elements that do not enhance the storytelling elements of the
spoken word.

Additional elements on video script writing

These are elements that a video/television script writer needs to add on top of the
key principles of broadcasting.
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 1. Sound (audio) and vision (picture) – of the two, vision is the most
effective component in giving the details. The words in television just
support the pictures not the other way round. That is why television
reporters first edit the video before writing the script as the script has to
match what the video says.
2. Captions – these are names and titles of the speakers written on the screen
while the speaker is speaking. These must be simple and clear so that your
viewers do not have to spend much time reading them. It is vital to read the
name in caption aloud.
3. Subtitles –These are text versions of the spoken words in the bulletin or
program. They usually run along the bottom of the screen so viewers can
read them while still watching the pictures and listening to the words being
spoken. Subtitles are used for two reasons: a) to help viewers who have
hearing difficulties and b) translate words in languages other than the
language of broadcast.
4. Stand-ups –This happens when the reporter speaks directly into the
camera at the scene of the story. The reporter is not supposed to be reading
on his notepad as that shall make him lose focus.

Format of a video script

A video script consists of two columns:

1. Video (picture) – It describes the images appearing on the TV screen. This

column indicates the type of shots (long, medium and close up), angle of
the camera (normal, high and low), movement of the camera, type of the
lighting and other effects.
2. Audio (sound): This column describes the type of sound coming out along
the video or picture/image on the screen. The audio may be in form of
music, sound effects, commentary, dialogue etc.

20
 Note. The script may also have information about the duration of each shot
or scene. This enables the working out of the total time for the program and
modifying the script, if necessary.

Types of TV stories
1. Reader – This is the simplest form of storytelling in broadcast as it
involves only a script and the anchor/reporter. It contains no video or sound
bites but only a journalist reading the script. Traditionally, these last 10-20
seconds each and contain about 4 or 5 sentences of copy. In TV over the
shoulder graphic may augment the storytelling.
2. Voice-Over – The VO adds the element of video to the story but remains
a fairly simple storytelling tool. The VO story starts with the journalist
reading the first sentence from the story while on camera. As the story
moves to the second sentence the video associated with the story begins to
roll on the screen allowing the viewers to hear the voice of the reporter
over the video. The reporter will reappears on the screen to finish the final
sentence of the story.
3. VO/SOT (Voice over/Sound on Tape) – This integrates the use of a sound
bite or two into a story. The journalist starts the first sentence before the
video rolls and the voice continues then there comes a sound-bite from a
source. After the sound bite the journalist continues with the reading of the
script. They run about 35-40 seconds with mostly one or two sound bites.
4. Package – reporters edit the video and voice their script in advance so that
the entire story is ready to plug into the newscast as a package of content.
It requires no live efforts from anyone apart from brief introduction and
closing statement from the anchor. The stories contain sound-bites from at
least two sources and will likely include a stand-up. The stand-up/sound-

21
 bite shows the reporter in the field offering information on the topic.
Package stories usually run between 1minute 30seconds to 2 minutes.
5. Live on Set/Live on Scene (LOS) – LOS integrates interaction between
the reporter and the anchor during a live newscast. The anchor will start
telling the story before introducing the reporter who is covering the story
and is live at the scene of the story/event or in the studio. That reporter will
say a line or two about the topic before the pre-packaged story goes on air.
Once the story is complete the live portion of the news cast returns with
the reporter offering some summary statements or conducting a brief
question and answer session with the anchor to wrap up the piece.

Review Questions
1. Explain the difference between radio script writing and TV script writing.
2. How does writing for print media differ from writing for broadcast
media?
3. What is the difference between “Package stories” and Live on “Set
stories”?
4. Discuss why the television industry in Malawi has generally failed to do
“Live on Set” stories.

References
Filack, V. (2019). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (2nd Ed.).
Washington DC: Sage Publications.

Filack, V. (2016). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (1st Ed.).
California: Sage Publications.

Dominick, J. (2011). Dynamics of mass media writing: Media in transition.

(11th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

22
UNIT THREE: BEAT REPORTING
Objectives
After reading this unit students should be able to:
1. Differentiate the various types of beats
2. Write stories on various beats

DEFINING BEATS
Beats are specific areas of coverage. A beat approach allows the reporter to
become a contact point for people with an interest in that topic area who want to
see certain things covered. A reporter who covers an area repeatedly is more
likely to become knowledgeable on that area and also cultivates quality sources.
Types of Beats
1. Thematic Beat/Topical Beat
These are beats that focus on specific themes or topics e.g. Economics, health,
sports, legal issues, politics, police news etc. As a reporter, make sure you have
thorough knowledge on what you are reporting.
2. Geographical Beat

23
Reporters are placed in strategic areas e.g. a reporter responsible for a particular
region. For big media houses such as BBC, they may have a reporter responsible
for West Africa, East Africa or Southern Africa.
3. Conceptual Beat
Reporters handling conceptual beats deal with issues that lack concrete definition
or a central junction point e.g. multiculturalism, investigative reporting. In some
media houses they have reporters who solely focus on investigative journalism.
These are conceptual beats (even though such stories may crop up on any
thematic topic).
Crime or Police Reporting
 A reporter covering this area needs to be accurate because he is writing on
privileged information e.g. police documents.
 A policeman’s remark on the street should not be used because it is not a
matter of public record.
 A person arrested is not necessarily guilty of a crime. No matter how
compelling the evidence is, the person should not be convicted in the story.
 A person is arrested on charges of and not for.
 Always confirm names. If you are doubting say “he was booked at the
police station as...”
 Reporters may also get information from a police diary or occurrence book.
This is an entry book for arrested persons. It is also a record of complaints
made to the police as well as records of police investigations. That book is
supposed to be open to the public and the press.
Court Reporting
 The reporter should know the terms used in courts. He must have thorough
knowledge of legal terms and procedures to write effectively about a case
e.g. the difference between testimony and evidence.
 The introduction should summarize the trial events or events of the day.

24
  The reporter should emphasize on salient features e.g. a particular bit of
testimony by a witness.
 Direct quotations should be included in the story. Quotations from the
opening and closing arguments by lawyers and opinions given by judges
are also important for a story.
 Use of colourful words and descriptions is superfluous unless they are
needed to convey special message or if there is a sense of drama. You may
describe the crowd or the mood e.g. weeping, sobbing after sentence is
passed.
 The reporter should explain some legal terms to the audience.
Political Reporting
 The reporter should write facts. Truth is very important to a journalist.
 A true news report transmits information as presented by a source or
observed by a journalist without reflecting a journalist’s own opinion.
 There are three ingredients of political reporting:
1. Truth – The reporter must tell what is said and what happened without
letting your opinions interfere.
2. Accuracy – The reporter must check and verify information. It is
important to be accurate because politicians may say things which are
not nice under the strain of pressure and defeat.
3. Fairness and Balance – This involves the reporter’s responsibility to tell
all sides of each political story where there might be controversy,
debate, disagreements or different versions. The person accused of an
action should be given a chance to give his side of the story. Balancing
means both sides involved in a controversy are included in the story or
have their say. Fairness entails that all parties involved in a story are
treated without favour. It also means that the reporter should tie together
the charge and the reply in the same story.

25
Presidential Campaign
 During presidential campaigns reporters gather information from speeches,
observation, interviewing, reading and investigating.
 The first speech made by a presidential candidate should be kept safely. It
contains promises.
 When there is nothing happening you are forced to rely on press releases
or statements.
 You can also report conflicts e.g. people calling each other names.
 When you are travelling with a candidate, observe the following points:
1. Size of the crowd.
2. Opinions from local leaders.
3. Reception given to the candidate.
4. What is happening when the candidate is making his or her speech?
5. Do not take rumours as facts.
6. Guessing what is in the politician’s mind is dangerous though not
difficult. Do not guess.
On the Elections Day
The reporter should look for:
1. The winner.
2. Size of the vote.
3. Violence at the polling station.
4. Amusing incidents.
5. Circumstances under which the candidate cast their vote.
6. Last minute statements and comments.
7. Unacceptable behaviours e.g. campaigning on the election’s day.
Predictions Vs. Election Outcomes
 As the election’s day approaches reporters who have been following the
candidates objectively are able to predict the outcome.

26
  Some outcomes can be predicted but in a close race the result is in doubt
until all the votes are counted.
 If the result is apparent, the campaign task forces issue statements claiming
that they have won the elections.
 In a close race losers will protest the outcome.
 When counting is over emphasize the winner. You also need to emphasize
the margin by which the candidate has won.
 Include the number of people that voted and compare it with previous
elections.
 Include where the candidate was weak or strong.
 You may also include the loser.
 Say whether the result confirms the set prediction.
 Have statements from winners and losers.
 When reporting in a violent environment, you should know your rights,
responsibilities and how to stay alive. So always be alert.
 Carry a press card.
 Do not be fanatic and avoid taking part in a debate.
 Avoid colours or symbols that will identify you with one of the sides.
 Maintain contact with your station.
 Know the people who are there.
 If it gets too hostile leave the place.
 Learn how to leave in order to live.
 You have the right to refuse the assignment if you have good reasons.
 Use the police or international organizations for protection.
Business Reporting
 A good business reporter has to humanize the story (connect it with the
people).
 He explains economic jargons.

27
  He does not just focus on people who know economics. He explains
technical words to lay men e.g. appreciation means gaining value.
Guidelines for Business Reporting
 Avoid economic jargon (define or explain economic terms)
 Use statistics sparingly.
 Turn statistics into stories.
 Show the significance of the story to the people.
 Generate unusual business stories using the mind mapping.
 Pick only those statistics you want to pay attention to.
 Statistics on their own mean nothing, so look for consequences and
comparisons out of them.
 Do not oversimplify your story.
 Use quotes in your news story. Sometimes the source will give an excellent
presentation in his own words, so use his words.
 Do not presume that what is common (e.g. inflation, exchange rate) is
understandable.

Review Questions
1. How does writing on economics differ from writing on sports?
2. State any four things that the reporter does when reporting in a hostile
political environment.
3. Mention any five things that the reporter should look for on the elections
day.

References
Filack, V. (2019). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (2nd Ed.).
Washington DC: Sage Publications.

Filack, V. (2016). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (1st Ed.).
California: Sage Publications.

28
Dominick, J. (2011). Dynamics of mass media writing: Media in transition.
(11th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

UNIT FOUR: REGULATION OF THE MASS MEDIA:

INFORMAL AND FORMAL CONTROL
Objectives

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

1. Explain the difference between formal and informal controls

2. Discuss the various types of:

a. Informal control.

b. Formal control.

3. Explain the different laws that affect the reporter.

The media is generally controlled in two ways: formally and informally. Let us
look at these two in detail.

INFORMAL CONTROLS
These are situations which assist media institutions or personnel to have a sense
of judgement so that they determine what is wrong or right. These rules are not
written down. One uses his sense of judgement to determine what is wrong or

29
right. They are often influenced by either internal or external factors. Examples
of informal controls include personal ethics, performance codes, internal control
and outside influence.
a. Personal Ethics
These are principles which govern a person’s behavior to make that person make
the right decision at the right time depending on the situation he is in. Different
philosophers have formulated principles about personal behavior to make that
person make the right decision at the right time depending on the situation he is
in. Some of these principles are as follows:
i. The Principle of the Golden Mean
This principle was coined by an ancient Greek philosopher named Aristotle who
believed that moral behavior is the mean between two extremes. At one end it is
excess, at the other end it is deficiency. He believed that as a person, you need to
find a moderate position between these two extremes, and you will be acting
morally. This principle applies to the mass media in the sense that giving too little
information to the masses may lead to losing the audience and popularity for the
media house. Too much down-to-earth information may lead to losing audience
interest. This principle therefore requires a journalist to balance his coverage in
order to provide the public with information that is true and preserve the public’s
safety.
ii. The Principle of Utility
This principle was founded by two philosophers: Jeremy Bethan and John Stuart
Mills. It says that our actions have consequences and those consequences count.
It further states that the best decisions have good consequences for the largest
number of people i.e. the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In
other words, when making a decision we should consider how much good or harm
a decision can bring. A journalist should choose something that brings more good
than harm.
iii. The Veil of Ignorance

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This principle was founded by philosopher John Rawls. He believes that justice
is blind and it reaches out to each and every person without discrimination. The
communication expert or journalist should therefore treat his audience without
discrimination by revealing or divulging the same level of information. In other
words, we must treat all people equally.
iv. The Principle of Categorical Imperative
This is based on the philosophical thought of Emmanuel Kant. The principle
believes that when one thing is right to one person then it is right to all people. It
says that as human beings we have certain moral rights and duties. We should
treat all people as free and equal to ourselves, and our actions are morally right
only if we can apply them universally. In other words, are we willing to have
everyone act as we do? This is an absolutist view – right is right and must always
be done, regardless of the circumstances. This principle applies to a
communication expert or journalist in the sense that we should always give
truthful, rightful and honest information. We should avoid acts which might
create doubt in the minds of the audience.
v. The Principle of Self Determination
This principle is associated with Emmanuel Kant and the Judeo-Christian
tradition. It says that the communication expert or journalist should avoid using
a certain section of the society to accomplish his ambition. It is based on biblical
commandment “love thy neighbor as you love thyself”. For example, we should
avoid using the church, the chiefs, and the civil society to advance our ill motives
as journalists.

b. Performance codes
These informal controls comprise rules to guide a journalist as he or she is
carrying out professional duties. They were founded by the American Society of
Newspaper Editors to combat excessive and uncontrollable reporting of some
newspapers. The framers of the Performance Codes came up with weapons to act

31
as control measures in reporting. These weapons were to be called Canons of
Journalism. These canons were prescriptive in nature i.e. they were aimed at
guiding a journalist on what he or she ought to do and what he should not.

Examples of canons in the performance code

i. Any journalist had to have responsibility i.e. a reporter should be
seen to be responsible and respectful to the audience.
ii. Freedom of the press – It ensures that the press should be able to
express itself without intimidation, fear, or threat. This is to say that
the press should not be muzzled.
iii. Independence – The press should not be seen to be attached to any
organization which is contrary to the objectives of the press.
iv. Accuracy – It ensures that the press aims at giving facts which are
thoroughly researched through, not biased.
v. Fair play – The press should be used to create peace not unrest.
vi. Decency – The media should use proper language or fair language.

c. Internal controls
These are rules which supplement the performance codes and personal ethics.
They appear in form of organizational policies. They also vary from one media
house to another.
Examples of internal controls
i. Operational policies
These are policies covering the day-to-day problems and solutions
pertaining to a particular media house. These policies cover several areas
of production in the newspaper such as what action should be taken against
receiving bribes or writing fake stories.

32
 ii. Editorial policies
These are policies that guide the day-to-day production of the newspaper.
For example deciding what face a newspaper should have, whether you
have to promote government or not etc.

d. The outside influence

These are pressures that come from outside the media house. These may include
advertisers, politicians, pressure groups, press councils (e.g. Media Council of
Malawi) etc. These groups may exert pressure on the media house in order to
achieve a particular goal.

FORMAL CONTROLS
These are rules or decisions governing the mass media often dictated by the
government of the day. They include laws, court decisions that refine those laws,
and rules and regulations administered by government agencies.
a. The first Amendment
This law emphasizes that the press shall be free from any interference at any time.
It was a result of the British government which decided to suppress differing
opinions by introducing the Stamp Act. According to Dominick (2011) the Stamp
Act was a system of taxation imposed on the media to prevent them from
publishing hostile views. The early newspapers had to be “published by
authority” i.e. was supposed to be open to censorship by the crown. Recognizing
these dangers to a free press, the framers of the constitution (the US Congress)
came up with a counter to the Stamp Act which was called the First Amendment).
This amendment stated in part that “Congress shall make no law …………
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press” (Baran, 2011, p.394). This
amendment was meant to prevent governments from having direct interference
with the operations of the press.
b. The Prior Restraint

33
This is when a government censors the press by restraining it from publishing or
broadcasting certain material. Though this is rare, it has ever happened even in
Malawi. We have had cases where television stations, radio stations have been
closed and newspapers banned.
c. Restraint by Taxation
Some governments have attempted to block opposing views by imposing heavy
taxation on the press in order to silence them. However, in most cases such
attempts have been reversed by the courts.
d. The Reporter’s Privilege
After the First Amendment was passed, reporters have had the impression that
they are protected against any threat. However this belief has not worked because
most countries have taken reporters to court because of the unclear status of the
Reporter’s Privilege.

LAWS AFFECTING THE REPORTER

1. The first Amendment
It was put in place as a way of guiding the United States of America’s news media
from being muzzled by the government or other forces or bodies working against
it. The law emphasized on the freedom of the media. This law has been widely
adopted by various media bodies across the world.
Challenges Affecting the First Amendment
a. There have been constant battles between law makers and the courts
as law makers try to tamper with it.
b. It has been tampered with by public officials, courts and citizens of
various countries.
c. There have been attempts to pass new laws to counter the first
amendment.
d. People have tried to rewrite, redefine, reinterpret and repeal it
despite having existed for many years.

34
 2. The sixth amendment
It was passed by the United States Congress. It stipulates that all citizens have the
right to fair trial. It also stipulates that a person should not be judged through the
press but by the courts. The emphasis of this law is on fair trial. While the law
was widely viewed as a good law, it brought conflict between freedom of the
press and fair trial.
3. Gag Rules
These are rules that restrain the participants in a trial from giving information to
the media or that limit media coverage of events that occur in court. The
participants in a trial include lawyers, witnesses, defendants and complainants.
These rules were aimed at preventing publication of news about a trial (before
and during the trial). However these rules have proved to be ineffective because
of changes in government and type of leadership. Most courts in recent times
have often sided with the press as a way of promoting media freedom.
4. The law of Defamation, Libel and Slander
This law exists to protect a person or institutions from published information that
damages or injures their reputation. This is a situation when a person’s or
institution’s character is compromised through negative and not well researched
publications.

Libel is written defamation that tends to injure a person’s reputation or good

name. In other words, it is written defamation that lowers the esteem, respect or
good will due to the person. Slander is spoken defamation. However if a
statement is broadcast, it is still considered libel even though technically the
words are not written. Libel is considered more harmful than slander. Libel also
carries more serious penalties than slander. Some words are considered libel
because they are libelous in themselves e.g. calling a person a thief or swindler.
This is known as libel per se. Some words seem innocent in themselves but can
become libelous under certain circumstances. For example, saying that you saw

35
John eating pork is innocent in itself but may become libelous if John’s faith
prohibits eating pork. This type of libel is known as libel per quod.

Things Which Promote Defamation

a. Pressure on journalists to beat story deadlines. This results in
presenting wrong information.
b. Consulting irrelevant sources who might give untrue information.
c. Complexity of the subject on which one is reporting.
Effects of Defamation on the Media
a. They lead to losing a lot of money in lawsuits.
b. They bring shame and ridicule to the individual and institutions.
c. They cause public opinion to be negative on the individuals and
institutions involved.
Criteria for establishing defamation (especially libel)
For someone to prove libel, he must establish the following:
a. Identity
The person alleging libel must be clearly identified in the alleged
libelous material such as by name, although in other cases even if
the name is not mentioned, libel can be established e.g. saying “The
member of parliament for Blantyre North North East is a fraudster”.
b. Publication
The libelous material must be sent to someone other than the one
who claims libel (most usually through mass media, though some
people have also been sued based on emails).
c. Falsity
The one suing for libel must prove that the information published
about him is not true. If the information published is true, then there
is no case.

36
d. Injury or harm to one’s reputation
The complainant must prove that the published material lowered his
standing in the estimation of reasonable people generally i.e. must
prove that the published material damages his reputation.
e. Fault
The complainant must “demonstrate that the publisher either did
something or failed to do something that led to libel” (Filak, 2019,
p.130)
Defenses Against Defamation
The following are the three defenses that can be used in court in order
to defend yourself as a journalist:
a. Truth – There is no libel if what was said is proved to be true.
b. Privilege – This allows officials to speak publicly in their official
capacity without being accused of libel. In some cases the courts
have held that the public’s right to know is more important than a
person’s right to preserve his reputation. Examples of situations
where the defense of privilege may apply include parliamentary
deliberations, judicial proceedings, arrest warrants etc. If an official
says something in the name of privilege (absolute), the journalist
who reports such word operates under qualified privilege (reporting
words which were said under absolute privilege).
c. Fair comment and criticism – Any person who is a public figure is
open to fair comment and criticism. This means that public officials,
celebrities, politicians and all people who attract public attention are
open to fair comment. However, this defense applies only to opinion
and criticism, not misrepresentation of facts. For example you can
report that a certain presidential candidate is a very poor public
speaker and fails to articulate issues, but you cannot falsely report

37
 that he embezzled five billion kwacha from someone’s company and
expect to be protected in the name of fair comment and criticism.
d. Hyperbole and opinion – According to Filak (2019) “hyperbole is an
instance in which something is so ridiculously overblown as to not
be believable by anyone of a reasonable mind” (p.131). In
hyperbole, a statement does not contain factually provable
information e.g. his food tests like hyena’s blood. Courts have also
tried to determine libel by looking at whether what was said was fact
or opinion e.g. saying that John is a stupid politician is simply an
opinion. It is difficult for the court to determine stupidity or lack of
it.

Invasion of Privacy
Invasion of Privacy is closely related to defamation. The difference is that
defamation protects a person’s reputation while invasion of privacy protects a
person’s peace of mind and feelings. Another difference is that while defamation
involves communicating false information, invasion of privacy might be
triggered by disclosing the truth.

There are four different ways in which the media can invade someone’s privacy:
a. Intrusion upon solitude
This is where you invade someone’s solitude or seclusion (aloneness). This may
occur when you use cameras, microphones or recorders to eavesdrop on
someone’s private activities.
b. Unauthorized release of private information
This is when you publish someone’s private information without their consent
e.g. publishing someone’s medical records which reveal that he is HIV positive.
c. Creation of a false impression

38
This is when you create false impression of a person. For example, if James Phiri
is a well-known politician and you publish a story which claims that he was
arrested for murder, when in fact you are referring to another/different James
Phiri, you may be accused of creating a false impression.
d. Appropriation of Identity
This is when you use a person’s name or likeness for commercial purposes. This
commonly involves stars or celebrities, though the not-so-famous people can also
be used. For example, if a company uses someone’s name or picture on an advert
without his knowledge, it can be sued for appropriation of identity. If a magazine
uses someone’s picture on its cover page, it can also be accused of appropriation
of identity.

Review Questions
1. Explain the following items as they relate to mass media regulation:
a. The First Amendment
b. The six Amendment
c. Gag rules
d. Veil of ignorance
e. Principle of utility
f. Principle of categorical imperative
g. Principle of Self determination
h. Prior restraint
i. Restraint by Taxation
2. Explain any three laws that affect the reporter.
3. What is the difference between Libel and Slander?

References
Baran, J. Stanely. (2011). Introduction to mass communication: Media literacy
and culture. (6th Ed.). New York: MacGraw-Hill.

39
Dominick, J (2011). The dynamics of mass communication: Media in transition.
New York: MacGraw-Hill.

Filack, V. (2019). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (2nd Ed.).
Washington DC: Sage Publications.

Filack, V. (2016). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (1st Ed.).
California: Sage Publications.

UNIT FIVE: WRITING FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS,

ADVERTISING AND MARKETING
Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
1. Differentiate public relations from advertising and marketing.
2. Write media releases, fact sheets and media alerts.
3. Organise successful media tours.
4. Pitch journalists with story ideas.
5. Speak competently and professionally when appearing on media
platforms.
6. Create messages for different media platforms.
7. State the differences between radio adverts and TV adverts.
8. Competently write for various marketing platforms.

40
DIFFERENCES AMONG PUBLIC RELATIONS, ADVERTISING AND
MARKETING
Since you have already covered a course on public relations, in this module we
are going to simply focus our attention on public relations writing. However,
before we go into public relations writing, it is important to look at the differences
among public relations, advertising and marketing.
How does public relations differ from adverting?
Public relations goes through media gatekeepers who make ultimate decisions
whether to use the material for a story or not. Advertising involves paid space or
time and is easily identified as being separate from news or editorial content.

How does public relations differ from marketing?

The functions of public relations overlap with marketing. However the primary
purpose of public relations is to build relationships and generate goodwill with
the public. Marketing focusses on selling of products and services. Public
relations can be part of marketing strategy; in such cases it is called marketing
communications.
How does marketing differ from advertising?
Marketing is a discipline concerned with promoting and selling products or
services with the help of tools like marketing research and advertising.
Advertising is a branch of marketing which aims at imparting information,
creating needs and instigating action that is beneficial to the organization. In
addition, advertising involves creative endeavors like design and multimedia
production.
Note: An organization’s goals and objectives are best achieved by integrating the
activities of advertising, marketing and public relations to create consistent and
powerful messages.

WRITING FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public Relations Tactics
1. News Releases/Press Releases

41
This is the most common tool in public relations. The purpose of the media
release is to inform the media about an important topic that deserves public
attention. It can be used to create awareness, draw attention or inspire action. A
news release must be accurate, informative and written in journalistic style. News
releases may come in different formats such as:
a. Announcements – They notify the media and the public about things such
as changes in personnel, product launches, legal action etc.
b. Reaction Releases – They allow you to respond to newsworthy events and
statements that impact your audience e.g. responding to a negative
comment about your presidential candidate. The reaction release will state
the position of the candidate in the wake of negative news.
c. Bad news Releases – This release allows you to explain issues related to
bad news and make statements regarding what will happen next e.g. in
crisis situations.
d. Localisation Releases – Sometimes you have a local interest in putting
information out to the public about a broader issue. Localisation releases
allow you to bring the broader issue to your readers in a local way.
2. Fact Sheets
They give the 5Ws and 1H of an event in an outline form. Though fact
sheets can stand alone, they are more commonly used to supplement a news
release, website or anchor a press kit. If the information requires more than
two pages, type ‘more’ at the bottom of the page. At the end of the fact
sheet type ‘###’. Below is an example of a fact sheet:

Home Product Manufacturers

P.O. Box 200, Mzuzu
Phone: 0133 346 786
Email: pro@p.manufacturer.mw

Launch of Lex Soap

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 FACT SHEET

Brief Background The Company is phasing out the production of Nkuku soap
There is need to replace it

Features Ability to trap dirt and wash it away

Lathers well
Moisturises and hydrates the skin

Advantages It is cheap
Lasts long
Has anti-bacterial properties which help to kill germs

Launch Details Launch to take place on 5 July, 2019 at the company premises
To be launched by the Managing Director, Memory Phiri

29 July, 2019

###

3. Media Alerts
This form of writing blends the lead writing approach associated with the
Inverted Pyramid and the bulleted approach common to fact sheets. It uses
many of the 5 Ws and 1H as a starting point for the bullets. Below is an
example of a media alert:

WORLD BANK MALAWI OFFICE

P.O. Box 201, Lilongwe
Phone: 0133 346 786
Email: communicationsmanager@p.wb.mw

20 June, 2019

WORLD BANK COUNTRY DIRECTOR INSPECTS CONSTRUCTION WORK AT MZUNI

The World Bank Country Director will on Monday, July 8, 2019 visit the Center for Open and
Distance Learning at Mzuzu University to appreciate the progress on the construction of
Teaching Hotel which the bank is funding.

10 A.M. – The director arrives on campus and is welcomed by university authorities.

43
 10:10 A.M. – The Director is briefed by the Chancellor of the university.

10:30 – The Director and university officials leave for the construction site.

11A.M. – The Director inspects the project.

11:30 A.M. – The Director gives a speech and responds to questions from journalists.

12 Noon – The Director leaves the construction site.

###

4. Media Kits
A media kit or press kit is typically a folder containing news releases,
photos and fact sheets about a new product, event or other newsworthy
projects undertaken by an organization.
5. Pitches
Public Relations Officers ‘pitch’ journalists and editors with their story
ideas about their employer or client. Such pitches can be letters, emails or
even phone calls. A good pitch has a creative idea that will appeal to the
editor. Give an example of a pitch.
6. Personal appearances
Public relations personnel appear on television or are heard on radio talk
shows. They give information about their products and services or their
organizations. The guest needs to have a good personality, be
knowledgeable and give reasonable answers.
7. Media Tours
These are visits designed to build relationships with journalist and to offer
them the opportunity to visit plant sites or other locations. The tour should
be newsworthy and not just a vacation for journalists.

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WRITING FOR ADVERTISING
Advertising can be defined as any non-personal presentation of a product or
service paid for by an identified sponsor. Being personal implies that it is done
through the media. Advertising has greatly evolved over many decades. In the
Babylonian times, Town Criers were responsible for advertising. Advertising was
done through word of mouth. They also used symbols which represented goods.
Today logos and brand names are used because people are able to read and write.
Advertising techniques
Adverts are designed to inform, persuade and influence people. An advert must
attract attention and gain a person’s interest. It must provide a reason for buying
and spending.
1. Basic Appeals
Advertisers rely on many kinds of appeals to persuade people to buy. Messages
are presented in two ways:
a. Factual approach – It demonstrates the characteristics of the product or
service. Such advertising tells you what the product or service is; how
it works; and possibly how it is made.
b. Emotional approach – This stresses how the product or service will
provide personal satisfaction. It appeals to a person’s need for security,
love and prestige.
To persuade a large number of people advertisers combine both appeals.
2. Attention getting headlines
A successful headline attracts the readers’ attention and forces them to read
or listen to the rest. A headline may promise a personal benefit or arouse a
persons’ curiosity e.g. “SALE! SALE! SALE!”. Other headlines introduce
a new product or target a specific group of people e.g. “ATTENTION ALL
TOBACCO FARMERS”. Advertisers use a variety of technics to create
effective advertising. They start with a basic appeal which is the main

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 selling point or theme of the advert, then specific technics are used. The
most commonly used technics include:
a. Slogans – Short phrases that a company uses repeatedly in advertising
b. Product characters – Fictional people or animals used to deliver a
particular message. They are also a way of recognizing a product e.g.
using a cow when advertising milk.
c. Comparison of products – These are products that compete with others.
You stress the advantages of your product which other products do not
have.
d. Testimonials – You get a well-known person to endorse your product.
Make sure the person used in the advert is already liked by the audience,
and also uses the product.
e. Repetition – This technic works well in the broadcast media. Repetition
not only causes the idea to be remembered but also leads people to
accept what is being repeated as being true.
Television Advertising
A good TV advert can tell a message without sound and text. TV advertising is
visional i.e. what people see is the most important aspect of your advert. If you
want to write, you may write the name of the product. If you want to say
something, get to the point i.e. be as simple as possible but should attract
attention. The first words spoken are a headline.

WRITING FOR MARKETING

Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing,
promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that
satisfy the individual and the organizational objectives. The business and the
public want something from each other and whatever they get must give
satisfaction. Marketing includes the 4Ps (Product, Price, Place and promotion.
The aim of marketing is to build demand so that you maintain the market.

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Marketing platforms or Tools
These are tools that companies use to develop and promote their products and
services. In this context we are referring to technics, strategies and materials used
in the promotion of services.
1. Emails – Marketers spend a lot of time gathering email addresses of
potential customers so that they can alert them when something important
comes along. Emails will alert members to an opportunity you want them
to consider e.g. when you want to introduce a new car on the market. You
should use a strong subject line to alert them to what benefit you are
offering them. The body of the message should be short and straight to the
point. Experts say that you should limit your text to one screen of text, as
many readers will not scroll unless they are really interested.
2. Brochures – They offer you an opportunity to inform and persuade i.e. give
people a persuasive message in hope of inspiring action.
3. Surveys – They are useful for determining which products to create and
also for improving or upgrading existing products. You can also conduct
them as you want to rate yours and your competitors products.
4. Social media – It helps you develop an interactive online relationship with
consumers. The audience is able to give you feedback on your products or
services.

Review Questions
1. What is the difference between public relations and advertising?
2. What are the similarities between marketing and advertising?
3. Why is it important today for organizations to use integrated marketing
communications in creating messages for the public?
4. Imagine you work as a public relations manager for a company that
manufactures mobile phones. Your company intends to introduce a new
brand of mobile phones which comes with more improved features than

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 those in the other brands you already have on the market. Write a Fact
Sheet for your product to be submitted to the media.
5. Define advertising
6. Design adverts using different persuasive technics
7. Differentiate radio advertising from TV advertising; print advertising
from radio and TV advertising.
8. What is the difference between TV advertising and radio advertising?
9. What is the importance of the following technics in advertising:
a. Slogans?
b. Testimonials?
c. Repetition?
d. Product characters?
10.Discuss any three advantages and disadvantages of using social media as
a marketing tool.

References
Filack, V. (2019). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (2nd Ed.).
Washington DC: Sage Publications.

Filack, V. (2016). Dynamics of media writing: Adapt and connect. (1st Ed.).
California: Sage Publications.

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