ME-11102 – Work shop

Dr.R PRABHU SEKAR,

Assistant Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad.
 Course Topic -2

2. Materials in Design –Evolution of Engineering materials –Metals-

Plastics -composites Applications – Automotive Industry-
Consumer Goods- Construction & Civil Structure- Industrial
Applications.
 Evolution of Engineering Materials
 Materials play an important role for our day to day needs ,and
even for our survival.
 In the stone age the naturally accessible materials were stone,
wood, bone, etc..
 Gold was the 1st metal used by the mankind followed by copper.
 In the bronze age Copper and its alloy like bronze was used and
in the iron age they discovered Iron (pig iron).
Material Engineering: Mainly concerned with the use of
fundamental and applied knowledge of materials, so that they
may be converted into products, as needed or desired by the
society. (bridges materials knowledge from basic sciences to
engineering disciplines)
Evolution of Engineering Materials
 Why Material Engineering Important to
Technologists?
 Mechanical engineers search for high temp material so that gas
turbines, jet engines etc., can operate more efficiently and wear
resistance materials to manufacture bearing materials
 Electrical engineers search for materials by which electrical
devices or machines can be operated at a faster rate with
minimum power losses
 Aerospace & automobile engineers search for materials having
high strength-to weight ratio
 Electronic engineers search for material that are useful in the
fabrication & miniaturization of electronic devices
 Chemical engineers search for highly corrosion-resistant
materials
Note: All these demands may be fulfilled when the internal
structure and engineering properties are known to an engineer or
technologist
 The Evolution of Materials in Products
 In this section we consider one example of the changes in the way
materials are used, each spanning about 100 years.
 The kettle is the oldest of household appliances and the one
found in more homes than any other.
1. Kettles

Cast Iron Bronze Polypropylene

 The Evolution of Materials in Products

 Early kettles, heated directly over a fire, were of necessity made

of materials that could conduct heat well and withstand
exposure to an open flame: iron, copper, or bronze .
 Electric kettles, developed in the 1890s, had external heating
elements to replace the flame, but were otherwise much like
their predecessors.
 All that changed with the introduction, by the Swan company
(1922), of a heating element sealed in a metal tube placed
within the water chamber.
 The kettle body no longer had to conduct heat—indeed for
safety and ease of use it was much better made of a thermal
and electrical insulator.
 Today almost all kettles are made of plastic, allowing economic
manufacture with great freedom of form and color.
 The Evolution of Materials in Products
2. Aircraft

 Early planes were made of low-density woods (spruce, balsa,

and ply), steel wire,5 and silk. Wood remained the principal
structural material of airframes well into the twentieth century,
but as planes got larger it became less and less practical.
 The aluminum airframe, exemplified by the Douglas DC3, was
the answer. It provided the high bending stiffness and strength
at low weight necessary for scale-up and extended range.
 Aluminum remained the dominant structural material of civil
airliners for the remainder of the twentieth century.
 The Evolution of Materials in Products
 By the end of the century, the pressure for greater fuel economy
and lower carbon emissions had reached a level that made
composites an increasingly attractive choice, despite their higher
cost and greater technical challenge.

 The future of airframes is exemplified by Boeing’s 787

Dreamliner (80% carbon-fiber–reinforced plastic by volume),
claimed to be 30% lighter per seat than competing aircraft.

 All this has happened within one lifetime.

 Competitive design requires the innovative use of new materials

and the clever exploitation of their special properties, both
engineering and aesthetic.
 Classification of Engineering Materials

It is the systematic arrangement or division of materials into

groups on the basis of some
common characteristic
1. According to General Properties
2. According to Nature of Materials
3. According to Applications
 Classification of Engineering Materials

1. According to General Properties

(a). Metals (e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, etc.) Iron as the
base metal, and range from plain carbon (> 98 % Fe)
(i). Ferrous: high alloy steel (< 50 % alloying elements), e.g. cast
iron, wrought iron, steel, alloys like high-speed steel, spring steel,
etc
(ii). Non-Ferrous: Rest of the all other metals and their alloys, e.g.
copper, aluminium, zinc lead, alloys like brass, bronze, duralumin,
etc.

(b). Non-Metals (e.g. leather, rubber, asbestos, plastics, etc)

 Classification of Engineering Materials
2. According to Nature of materials

(a) Metals: e.g. Iron & Steel, Alloys & Super alloys, Intermetallic
Compounds, etc

(b) Ceramics: e.g. Structural Ceramics (high-temperature load

bearing), Refractories (corrosion-resistant, insulating), White
wares (porcelains), Glass, Electrical Ceramics (capacitors,
insulators, transducers), Chemically Bonded Ceramics (cement &
concrete)

(c) Polymers: e.g. Plastics, Liquid Crystals, Adhesives.

(d) Electronic Materials: e.g. Silicon, Germanium, Photonic

materials (solid-state lasers, LEDs)
 Classification of Engineering Materials

(e) Composites: e.g. Particulate composites (small particles

embedded in a different material), Laminate composites (golf
club shafts, tennis rackets), Fiber reinforced composites
(fiberglass).

(f) Biomaterials: e.g. Man-made proteins (artificial bacterium),

Biosensors, etc.

(g) Advanced / Smart Materials: e.g. materials in computers

(VCRs, CD Players, etc), fibreoptic systems, space crafts, aircrafts,
rockets, shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics, magneto
strictive materials, optical fibres, micro electromechanical
(MEMs) devices, electro-rheological / magneto-rheological
fluids, Nano-materials, etc.
 Classification of Engineering Materials

3. According to Applications
(a) Electrical Materials: e.g. conductors, insulators, dielectrics,
etc.
(b) Electronic Materials: e.g. conductors, semi-conductors, etc.

(c) Magnetic Materials: e.g. ferromagnetic, paramagnetic &

diamagnetic materials, etc.

(d) Optical Materials: e.g. glass, quartz, etc.

(e) Bio Materials: e.g. man-made proteins, artificial bacterium

Classification of Engineering Materials
 Materials Properties

1. Physical: e.g. appearance, shape, weight, boiling point, melting

point, freezing point, density, glass transition temperature,
permeability.

2. Mechanical: e.g. strength (tensile, compressive, shear, torsion,

bending), elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, rigidity,
toughness, hardness, brittleness, impact, fatigue, creep, strain
hardening, vibration, wear.

3. Thermal: e.g. thermal conductivity, expansion coefficient,

resistivity, thermal shock resistance, thermal diffusivity
 Materials Properties

4. Electrical: e.g. conductivity, resistivity, dielectric strength.

5. Magnetic: e.g. Ferromagnetism, Paramagnetism,

magnetic permeability, curie temperature.

6.Chemical: e.g. reactivity, corrosion resistance, polymerization,

composition, acidity.
7. Optical: e.g. reflectivity, refractivity, absorptivity, transparency,
opaqueness, color,
 Young’s Modulus
Hook’s law: With in the elastic limit, the stress is very nearly
proportional to the strain. The nominal tensile strain, for example, is
proportional to the tensile stress; for simple tension
 Young’s Modulus

 Diamond is at the top, with a modulus of 1000GPa. Soft rubbers and

foamed polymers are at the bottom with moduli as low as 0.001GPa.

 Most ceramics and metals have moduli in a comparatively narrow

range: 30–300GPa. Cement and concrete (45GPa) are near the
bottom of that range. Aluminum (69GPa) is higher up; and steels
(200GPa) are near the top.

 Polymers are quite different: all of them have moduli which are
smaller.
 Young’s Modulus of composites
Is it possible to make polymers stiffer?
The answer is yes—if we mix into the polymer a second, stiffer,
material. Good examples of materials stiffened in this way are:
(a) GFRP - Glass-fiber reinforced polymers, where the polymer is
stiffened or reinforced by long fibers of soda glass;
(b) CFRP - Carbon-fiber reinforced polymers, where the reinforcement
is achieved with fibers of graphite;
(c) KFRP -Kevlar-fiber reinforced polymers, using Kevlar fibers
(a unique polymer with a high density of covalent bonds
oriented along the fiber axis) as stiffening;
(d) Filled polymers - polymers into which glass powder or silica flour
has been mixed to stiffen them;
 5. Material Selection – Civil structure

Stone Bridge (1640) The Wooden Bridge (1749)

Cast Iron arches (1823) Mild steel bridge (1950)

 5. Material Selection – Civil structure
 150 years or so ago wood was
commonly used for bridge building. It
was cheap, and high-quality timber
was still available in large sections
from natural forests.
 Stone, too, was widely used.
Reinforced concrete bridge

 In the eighteenth century the ready availability of cast iron, with its
relatively low assembly costs, led to many cast-iron bridges.
 Metallurgical developments of the later nineteenth century allowed
large mild-steel structures to be built.
 Finally, the advent of cheap reinforced concrete led to graceful and
durable structures This evolution clearly illustrates how availability
influences the choice of materials.
 Ferrous Alloys
Steels:
 Iron it its purest form is not used as an engineering material because it
has poor tensile strength and hardness. But when alloyed with other
elements, the properties can be greatly improved or modified.

 Out of the various alloying element, carbon is the most important

element.
 The maximum amount of carbon that can be alloyed with iron is
6.67% (the maximum solubility of carbon in iron).

 Carbon content upto 2% in iron is termed as steel and above 2% are

called as cast iron.

 Steels have other than carbon, small amount of elements such as

manganese, sulphur, phosphorous and silicon.
 Ferrous Alloys

 The properties of steel are influenced by an increase in carbon content

which has the following effects:

1. Tensile strength is increased

2. Greater hardness is obtained

3. Ductility is decreased

4. Weld ability – (the ability of a material to be weld) is decreased

5. Toughness is improved
 Classification of steels on the base of carbon
 Steels may broadly be classified as

1. Carbon steels (plain carbon steels)

2. Alloy steels

Carbon steels
 These are known as plain carbon steel or simply steel.
 The percentage of carbon in most steels range from 0.1% to 2%.

Carbon steels are classified as

1. Low carbon steel (Mild steel) : 0.008 to 0.3% Carbon
2. Medium carbon steel : 0.3 to 0.6% Carbon
3. High carbon steel : 0.6 to 2% Carbon
 1. Low carbon steels
 This is also known as soft steel. It is used where ductility and softness
are important and high tensile strength is not required.

 The hardness of plain carbon steel increases with carbon content.

 It is important to note that the percentage of carbon in low carbon

steel is upto 0.3% and this amount of carbon is not sufficient for steel
to undergo the heat treatment process.

 So the hardness of low carbon steel cannot be increased by

conventional heat treatment method.

 They can be case hardened (the outer surface can be made hard by
heating it in an atmosphere of carbon).
 The hardness of low carbon steel is only about 150 BHN.
 1. Low carbon steels
Applications:
1. It is used for manufacturing products such as screws, nails, nut,
bolts, washers, wire fences, automobile body sheets.

2. It is also used in the form of sheets, squares, rounds, plates, and

wires.

3. Steels with 0.15 to 0.3% carbon are used as structural steels and find
applications as building bars, grills, beams, angle, channels etc.
 2. Medium carbon steels
 The carbon content ranges between 0.3% to 0.6%.

 Medium carbon steels have greater tensile strength and hardness than
low carbon steels.

 The hardness around 300 BHN.

 They also have better machining qualities.

 They are difficult to cold worked and hence are usually hot worked.

Applications:

1. They are used for making hooks, wire ropes, shafts, connecting rods,
spindles, rail axels, gears, turbine bucket, steering arms.
 3. High carbon steels
 The carbon content ranges between 0.6% to 2%.

 They have higher tensile strength and are harder than other carbon
steels. They have hardness about 500 BHN.

 High carbon steels responds readily to heat treatment and hence their
hardness can be further increased to desired values
.
 They have good wear resistance.

 The hardenability is more than medium carbon steels.

 These steels cannot be cold worked and are hence always hot
worked.
 3. High carbon steels

Applications :

1. They are used for making hand tools such as wrenches, chisels,
punches and rail wheels, files, cutting tools like drills, wood working
tools and rod for reinforced concrete.
 Alloy steels

 Alloy steels are those steels which contain other elements like Ni,
Mn, W, Cr, Mo, V etc.

 These elements are added to plain carbon steel to improve one or

more of the following properties:

1. Greater strength, hardness, toughness at low and high temperatures

2. High hardenability
3. Greater wear resistance
4. Lesser tendency to cracking
5. More uniform properties throughout the cross section
6. More resistance to corrosion
7. Greater flexibility in heat treatment is possible.
 Alloy steels

 Alloy steels can be classified as low alloy steels and high alloy
steel.

 Steel is said to be low alloy steel if the total percentage of alloying

elements is less than 8%.

 Steels is said to be high alloy steel if the total percentage of alloying

elements is more than 8%.

 Every alloying element present in steel contribute a certain property

to it.
 Influence of alloying elements in steels

Aluminum:
 Aluminum is a deoxidizer and restricts grain growth.

 When aluminum is added small amount, it increased strength,

however too much aluminum causes embrittlement.

 Aluminum ranges from 2 to 5 % imparts resistance to heat and

oxidation.
Boron
 Boron is a very powerful hardening agent, however it is a very
expensive element.
 Hence, boron is used in small quantity not over 0.003%.
 When too much boron is added, it produces brittleness.
 Influence of alloying elements in steels
Chromium:
 Chromium forms hard carbides and imparts good wear resistance
corrosion resistance and high hardness.

 Chromium decreases machinability.

 When more than 5% chromium is added, the high temperature

properties and corrosion resistance of the steel will be greatly
improved.
Copper
 Copper is added in steel ranging from 0.1 to 0.4%.
 Copper increases resistance to atmospheric corrosion and also
strengthens steels.
 Influence of alloying elements in steels
Nickel:
 Nickel is mainly used in alloy steels in amounts upto about 5% to
increase strength and toughness.

 The presence of nickel in large amounts increases resistance to

oxidation at high temperature.

 Nickel also decreases the machinability

Phosphorus:
 Phosphorus is kept below 0.5% in most of the steels.
 It increases the tensile strength, hardness and also improves
machinability.
 Influence of alloying elements in steels
Tungsten:
 Tungsten forms strong carbides and strengthens steels. These
carbides provide wear and abrasive resistance to the steel.

 It gives red hardness (also called hot hardness, it is the ability of the
material to maintain strength at high temperature).

 Hence, tungsten is an important element in most high speed tool

steels and hot working die steels.
 Cast Iron
 By melting Pig iron along with iron scraps and limestone in a
cupola furnace Cast iron is obtained.

 Cast iron is a ferrous materials, it is basically an alloy of iron and

carbon. The cast iron can have any carbon percentage between 2 to
6.67%.

 The practical limit is normally between 2 to 4%. Too much carbon

makes the iron very brittle.

 Although cast iron is brittle and has lower strength properties than
most steel it has certain advantages.
 Cast Iron
Advantages of Cast Iron
1. Cast iron has a lower melting temperature (1140 -1200 C) than
steel (1380- 1500 C), hence it can easily be cast.
2. It possesses high casting property such as high fluidity, low
shrinkage and ease of production. It can be cast into any shape.

3. They have very high compressive strength, about 3 to 4 times that

of its tensile strength. The base of heavy machines are usually
made of cast iron.
4. Cast iron can be easily machined (good machinability)
5. They provide high wear resistance.

6. Because of high carbon content, they have self lubricating

properties hence lathe machine bed are made of cast iron.
7. Cast iron has high damping capacity.
 Types of Cast Iron
1. White cast iron :
 It is called white cast iron because it shows a white surface
when it broken.
 The carbon percentage ranges from 2 to 3.6%. It is very hard
and brittle. The hardness varies from 350 to 500 BHN.

 White cast iron is obtained by making the molten metal to cool

and solidify rapidly. On solidification iron carbide gives a white
colour to the cast iron.

 It has high compressive strength so it is very difficult to

machine white cast iron.
Applications
1. It has good wear resistance and is used for making rolls for
rolling mills, grinding balls, wearing plates.
 Types of Cast Iron
2. Grey cast iron :
 It is called white cast iron because it shows a grey surface when
it broken.
 The carbon percentage ranges from 2.4 to 3.8%. It is very hard
and brittle. The hardness varies from 150 to 320 BHN.

 Grey cast iron is obtained by allowing the molten metal to cool

and solidify slowly. On solidification graphite flakes gives a grey
colour to the cast iron.
 It has good machinability and it has low melting point.
 It has good shock resistance.
Applications
1. Grey cast iron is used for making machine bed, tables, IC
engine cylinder block, cylinder head, flywheels, electric motor
body, car wheel drum.
 Types of Cast Iron
3. Chilled cast iron :
 Chilled cast iron is a combination of both white and grey cast
iron. In this, the molten metal is solidified in a chiller mold.

 The surface which gets rapidly cooled becomes white cat iron
and the inner which gets slowly cooled becomes grey cast iron.
 Chilled cast iron is made by careful cooling and maintaining a
proper cooling rate.

Applications
1. Chilled cast iron is used for making Forging dies, sprockets,
cam shaft, grinding balls.
 Types of Cast Iron
4. Malleable cast iron:
 As the name suggests, malleable cast iron has the ability to be
deformed and bendable.
 Malleable cast iron is obtained by prolonged heat treating white
cast iron at high temperature (950 -970 c), this results in the
formation of rounded nodules of graphite.
 Malleable cast iron has 2.5% carbon and 1% silicon.
 It is less brittle and hence stronger and tougher.
 It readily absorbs shock load and vibrations.
 It has good machinability and high resistance to corrosion.
 It has hardness in the range of 140 – 285 BHN.

Applications
1. It is used for making spanners, lever, sewing machine and hand
wheels.
 Non-ferrous alloys
Major non-ferrous alloys
1. Copper and its alloys
2. Aluminium and its alloys
3. Nickel and its alloys
4. Zinc and its alloys
5. Lead and its alloys
6. Tin and its alloys
7. Bearing metals
 Non-ferrous alloys

Important Properties of non-ferrous alloys

1. High resistance to corrosion
2. Ease of fabrication to any shape by casting, rolling and forging
3. High electrical conductivity
4. Very good thermal condutivity
5. Light weight
6. Softness and cold workability
 Copper and its alloys
 Copper is extracted from its ore, called copper pyrites. Pure copper
has the following properties
1. High electrical and thermal conductivity
2. Good corrosion resistance
3. Better machinability
4. Good ductility
5. It is non magnetic and has a pleasing reddish colour.

1. Arsenical copper : Arsenic, when added upto 0.3%, improves

corrosion resistance of copper.
This is used in condensers, heat exchangers.

2. Free cutting copper: Tellurium, when added to 0.6% improves

machinability of copper.
 This is used for making bolts, studs, electrical parts such as switch
gear, relays, contact pins.
 Copper and its alloys
3. Silver bearing copper : Silver, when added upto 0.1% prevents
softening of copper during soldering process.

4. Phosphorised copper: Phosphorous, when added upto 0.02% controls

the electrical conductivity of copper

I. Brasses: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

 Addition of zinc in varying percentage results in improving color,
strength, machinability, hardness of the alloy.
 70% copper and 30% Zn is called as α-brass . It shows higher
ductility and corrosion resistance.
 Gilding Metal (95% Cu and 5% Zn): It shows good ductility and
better pressing ability. It is used medals, coins, tokens, jewelry.
 Red Brass (85% Cu and 15% Zn): This alloys show improved
corrosion resistance. It is used for condenser and heat exchanger
tubes.
 Copper and its alloys
Munz Metal (60% Cu and 40% Zn): It is most widely used brass. It is
used in pump parts as valve, condenser tubes, brazing rods and utensils.

Brazing Brass (50% Cu and 50% Zn): It is used for joining of brasses.

Cast Brass (85%Cu, Tin 5%, Lead 5% and Zinc 5%): This brass shows a
good castability and machining property. It is also called as leaded gun
metal (or) ounce metal. It is used in low pressure valves, pipe fittings,
and small pump casting.

II. Bronzes:
If any alloy of copper contains any alloying elements other than zinc, it
is called as bronze. In general, copper and tin alloy called as bronze.

Gun Metal (88% Cu, 10% tin and 2% zinc): It is used for making gun
barrels and other ordinance components.
 Copper and its alloys
Phosphor Bronze (10% tin, 0.03 to 0.25 % phosphorus and balance
copper): It shows excellent casting properties. It is used for making
bearings and bushes due to antifriction properties.

Leaded bronze (or) Plastic bronze: It contains lead in the range of 5 to

24%, tin around 2% and balance copper. It shows the highest bearing
properties and is used for bearing applications.
.
Copper – Nickel alloys
Cupronickel : Ni 30% and Cu 70%. It has a higher resistance to
corrosion, fatigue resistance. It is used for condensers, heat exchanger
tubes.
Constantan : Ni 45% and Cu 55%. This alloy has a very high electrical
resistivity. Constantan is used in the form of wires for making resistors
and thermocouples.
 Copper and its alloys
Nickel Silvers :
 These are the alloys of copper, nickel and zinc.

 A typical composition contains 50 to 70 % Cu, 5 to 30 % Ni, 4 to

30% Zn.

 The addition of nickel to copper zinc alloy gives it a silver blue white
colour.
 They are also called as German Silver.

 They show a higher corrosion resistance and better cold working

properties.

 Silver and chromium can be effectively plated on these alloys.

 They are used for rivets, screws, jewelry.
 Aluminium and its alloys
Aluminium :
 It is one of the most used non-ferrous metal. It is alloyed with silicon,
copper, and magnesium to improve its properties.

 Some of the important properties of aluminium are as follows,

1. It is light in weight. It has low density which is almost one third that
of iron.
2. It has low melting point (660 c)
3. It shows better corrosion resistance
4. It shows higher ductility and malleability
5. It has good heat and electrical conductivity
6. It has a good machinability
7. It is non magnetic and non-sparking
 Aluminium and its alloys

Duralumin: 4% Cu and rest Al. It shows good hardness and strength. It

is used in aircraft industry.

LM 5 – 5% Mg and balance Al. Good weld ability and corrosion

resistance. It is used in cable.

LM 10 - 10% Mg and balance Al. It is used for making aircraft and

automobile parts.
 Nickel and its alloys
 Nickel shows good corrosion resistance.
 Nickel is used mainly for production of stainless steel.
 It is also used for electroplating.

Dura Nickel: It is a nickel aluminium alloy. It contains 93.9% Ni, 0.15%

C, 0.25% Mn, 0.55% Si and 4.5% Al and Fe, S, Cu and Ti. It shows
high corrosion resistance and strength. It is used for bellows, fish hook
and parts of fishing equipment.

Monel : It is a nickel copper alloy. It contains 66% Ni, 30% Cu with Fe

and Mn. It is used in aircraft instruments.

Electrical resistance alloys: 80% Ni, 20% Cr. Used as heating elements
for domestic ovens and industrial furnaces.
 Nickel and its alloys
Inconel: It contains 76% Ni, 16% Cr and 8% Fe.It has good corrosion
resistance, strength and toughness. It is used in heaters, dairy
equipments.

Invar : It is Nickel – iron alloy with 35% nickel. It does not show any
changes in dimensions with a change in temperature. It is used for
measuring instruments like gauges, scales, vernier.

Elinvar : It contains 36% Ni, 12% Cr with rest of Iron. It is used in

watches for making springs.

Alnico : It contains 8 to 10% Al, 15 to 30% Ni, 5 to 30% Co with Fe. It

has high magnetic property. It is used to make powerful magnets. It
finds applications in motors, microphones and speakers.
 Lead and tin alloys
Tinman’s solder: It contains 62% tin. It is used for soldering elctronic
components.

Plumber’s solder: It contains 20 to 40 % tin. The pasty nature of alloy

helps the plumber to join pipes therefore it is called as plumber’s solder.

Terne metal : It contains 10 to 25% tin. It is used for coating steel sheets
in order to improve its corrosion resistance.
 Ceramics

 Ceramics can be defined as solid compounds that are

formed by the application of heat, and sometimes heat
and pressure, comprising at least two elements provided
one of them is a non-metal or a nonmetallic elemental
solid (NMES).
 The other element(s) may be a metal(s) or another
nonmetallic elemental solid(s).
 Ceramics

Examples:
 Magnesia or MgO, is a ceramic since it is a solid compound
of a metal bonded to the nonmetal O2.

 Silica is also a ceramic since it combines an NMES and a

nonmetal.

 Similarly TiC and ZrB2 are ceramics since they combine

metals (Ti, Zr) and the NMES (C, B)-

 SiC is also a ceramic.

 Ceramics
 Silicate based ceramics - Pottery, sculpture, sanitary ware,
tiles, electrically insulating silicate-based ceramics.

 Traditional ceramics are characterized by mostly silicate-

based porous microstructures that are quite coarse, non-
uniform, and multiphase.

 They are typically formed by mixing clays and feldspars,

followed by forming either by casting or on a potter's
wheel, firing in a flame kiln to sinter them, and finally
glazing.
 Characteristics of Ceramics

 As a class, ceramics are hard, wear-resistant, brittle, prone

to thermal shock, refractory, electrically and thermally
insulative, transparent. nonmagnetic, chemically stable,
and oxidation-resistant.
 As with all generalizations, there will be exceptions; some
ceramics are electrically and thermally quite conductive.
 Applications of Ceramics
Applications
1. Insulation- High-temperature furnace linings for
insulation (oxide fibers such as SiO2, A12O3, and ZrO2).
2. Conductivity - Heating elements for furnaces (SiC, ZrO2,
MoSi2)
3. Insulators in electronic applications - Substrates for
electronic packaging and electrical insulators in general
(Al2O3)
4. Semiconducting- Thermistors and heating elements
(oxides of Fe, Co, Mn).
5. Gas-sensitive conduct - Gas sensors (ZnO).
6. Soft magnets - Transformer cores [(Zn)Fe2O3, with Mn,
Co, Mg]; magnetic tapes.
 Applications of Ceramics

7. Transparency - Windows (soda-lime glasses), cables for

optical communication (ultra-pure silica).

8. Anticorrosion- Heat exchangers (SiC), chemical equipment

in corrosive environments

9. Biocompatibility- Artificial joint prostheses (Al2O3)

10. Hardness- Cutting tools (SiC whisker-reinforced A12O3,

Si3N4)

11. Wear resistance - Bearings (Si3N4)

 Plastics

 Plastics used for industrial work come from

petrochemicals.
 Plastic refers to its ability to deform without
breaking.
 The polymer used in making a plastics are usually
a combination of additives, colorants, plasticizers,
stabilizers, fillers, and reinforcements.
 These additives affect the chemical composition,
properties, and mechanical properties of plastics
and affect its cost.
 Plastics

 The two types of plastics are Thermoplastics and

thermosetting polymers.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics can be remolded over and over again
after heating. Some of these polymers are amorphous
and some carry a partially crystalline structure.
Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosetting polymers are those polymers that
solidify into a permanent shape. These polymers too
are amorphous and have infinite molecular weight.
 Physical properties Plastics
 Properties of plastics vary depending on the chemical
composition, arrangements and the processing method of
its subunits.
 Plastics come from polymers, hence all plastics are
polymers, but not all polymers are plastic.

 Plastics may be amorphous solids or crystalline solids.

 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

 The plastics that act as insulators mostly have a high
dielectric strength.
 Plastics have a slow rate of degradation and tend to be
durable.
 Physical properties Plastics

 Telephone instruments, plastic toys, ballpoint pens,

plastic bowls are thermoplastics and so can be recycled.

 Cooker handles carry bags, plastic covering on an

electric wire, plastic chains etc are thermosetting
plastics and so cannot be recycled.
 Plastics

 Example of plastics
1. PEEK - Polyether ether ketone
2. HDPE – High density polyethylene
3. EAA - Ethylene-acrylic acid
4. CN - Cellulose nitrate
5. EP – Epoxy
6. PP – Polypropylene
7. PPG – Polypropylene Glycol
8. PS – Polystyrene
9. PUR – Polyurethane
10. PVC – Polyvinyl Chloride
 Characteristics of Plastics

1. Because most plastics may be fabricated in the melt

and at quite low temperatures (e.g. 200°C) the
energy requirements for processing are low. Since
plastics generally have low densities, costs of
transportation and general handling are also
relatively low.

2. Through the development of such techniques as

injection molding it is possible to make highly
complex parts in one operation without the need for
assembly work or the generation of more than a
notional amount of scrap material.
 Characteristics of Plastics
3. Colouring is not usually restricted to the surface but is
throughout the mass so that damage due to scratching and
abrasion is less obvious than with coated metals.

4. An extremely wide range of surface finishes is possible

which may not only simulate non-plastics materials but in
addition produce novel effects.

5. The materials are generally excellent thermal insulators,

being particularly useful in expanded form.
 Characteristics of Plastics

6. Many plastics are superb electrical insulators including, in

many instances, good insulation characteristics at high
frequencies.

7. Plastics are available in a wide range of strengths,

flexibilities and degrees of toughness. Many fibre-reinforced
grades have strength per unit weight figures as high as those
of many metals.

8. Plastics are available in a wide range of chemical and

solvent resistances. Some materials are available that are
water soluble whilst others will withstand such aggressive
materials as hydrofluoric acid.
 Applications of Plastics

 Plastics have been widely accepted as packaging

materials.

 Plastics bottles have been particularly appreciated in the

bathroom, where breakage of glass containers has led to
many serious accidents.

 The wide use of plastics films for wrapping, for bags

 Applications of Plastics

 The automotive industry is now a major user of plastics,

with the weight of plastics being used per car increasing
year by year.
 For many years the main uses were associated with car
electrical equipment such as batteries, flex, plugs,
switches and distributor caps.
 Plastics then became established in light fittings, seating
upholstery and interior body trim.
 In recent times there has been increased use in under-the-
bonnet (under-the-hood) applications such as radiator
fans, drain plugs, petrol tubing and coolant water
reservoirs.
 Applications of Plastics

 Glass-fibre-reinforced plastic boats are widely used as a

result of their economy in manufacture, ease of
maintenance, lightness of weight and, for military
purposes, antimagnetic characteristics.

 The non-corrosive nature of plastics also leads to their

widespread use in boat fixtures and fittings. In aircraft,
plastics are particularly useful on account of their low
density.
 Applications of Plastics

 Industrial equipment is a continuing area of development

for plastics. Pipes, pumps, valves and sight glasses, made
from such materials as PVC and poly-4-methylpent-l-
ene, have become well established on account of their
corrosion resistance.

 The nylons are used for such diverse applications as mine

conveyor belts and main drive gears for knitting
machines and paper-making equipment.
 Applications of Plastics
 In the general area of medicine uses range from spare-part
surgery, such as hip joints and heart valves, injection
syringes.

 The photographic industry was of course one of the

earliest users of plastics, for photographic film.

 use of plastics for tapes, compact discs and toys