Data Communication and Computer

Network

Digital Transmission

BITS College

Presented to:
5/8/2024
Digital Transmission
 Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or
more points in a communications system.
 The signals can be binary or any other form of discrete-level digital pulses.

 The original source information may be digital or analog that have been
converted to digital pulses prior to transmission.

 With digital transmission systems, a physical facility, such as a pair of

wires, coaxial cable, an optical fiber cable or wirless is required to
interconnect the various points within the system.
Pulse modulation (review)
 Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information
signals and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and
transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical
transmission medium.
 The four predominant methods of pulse modulation include
o pulse width modulation (PWM),
o pulse position modulation (PPM),
o pulse amplitude modulation (PAM),
o and pulse code modulation (PCM).
Pulse Code modulation ( PCM )
 PCM is the only digitally encoded modulation technique that is commonly
used for digital transmission and it is a form of digitally coding analog signals.

 With PCM, the pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude.

 PCM is a binary system where a pulse or lack of a pulse within a prescribed

time slot represents either a logic 1 or a logic 0 condition.

 PWM, PPM, and PAM are digital but seldom binary, as a pulse does not
represent a single binary digit (bit).
Pulse Code (Sampling)
Basic Elements of PCM
The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator
circuit consists of Sampling, quantizing and Encoding,
which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter
section. The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents
aliasing of the message signal.

The basic operations in the receiver section

are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse
train.

Following is the block diagram of PCM which represents

the basic elements of both the transmitter and the
receiver sections.
Simplified PCM transmiter and Receiver
Pulse Code modulation PCM
 With PCM, the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit
binary code for transmission. Each code has the same number of bits and
requires the same length of time for transmission. PAM is used as an
intermediate.
2 Bit Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
2 bit ADC using diodes
Sampling audio using your computer
(Matlab)
Advantages of Digital Transmission
 The primary advantage of digital transmission over analog transmission is
noise immunity.
 Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for processing and
combining using a technique called multiplexing.

 Digitl system Uses signal regeneration rather than signal amplification

 Digital signal processing (DSP) is the processing of analog signals using

digital methods and includes band limiting the signal with filters,
amplitude equalization, and phase shifting.

 It is much simpler to store digital signals than analog signals

DSP is simpler in Digital

1. Matlab generated signals and noise,

2. Matlab recording of audio signal

What we have in the left is an audio
recording, the lower left image is part of
the audio signal with expanded time, it is
meant to show how an audio signal is
similar to a noise depicted in red in the
diagram.
DATA CODES ( Textual Data)
 One of the most common forms of data transmitted between a transmitter
and a receiver is textual data. This textual information is transmitted as a
sequence of characters.

 To distinguish one character from another, each character is represented

by a unique binary pattern of 1s and 0s. The set of all textual characters
or symbols and their corresponding binary patterns is called a data code .

 Three important data codes are

EBCDIC, ASCII, and Unicode.
EBCDIC
 The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, or EBCDIC, is

 an 8-bit code allowing 256 (28 = 256} possible combinations of textual

symbols.

 These 256 combinations of textual symbols include all uppercase and

lowercase letters, the digits 0 to 9, a large number of special symbols and
punctuation marks, and a number of control characters.

 The control characters, such as linefeed (LF) and carriage return (CR),
provide control between a processor and an input/output device.
ASCII
 The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is
a government standard in the United States and is one of the most widely used
data codes in the world.
 The ASCII character set exists in a few different forms, including a 7-bit
version that allows for 128 (27 = 128) possible combinations of textual
symbols, representing uppercase and lowercase letters, the digits 0 to 9,
special symbols, and control characters.
 The byte, which consists of 8 bits, is a common unit of data, the 7-bit
version of ASCII characters usually includes an eighth bit. This eighth bit
can be used to detect transmission errors
 It can provide for 128 additional characters defined by the application
using the ASCII code set, or it can simply be a binary 0.
UNICODE
 One of the major problems with both EBCDIC and ASCII is that they cannot
represent symbols other than those found in the English language.
 Further, they cannot even represent all the different types of symbols in
the English language, such as many of the technical symbols used in
engineering and mathematics.
 What if we want to represent the other languages around the world? For
this, what we need is a more powerful encoding technique-Unicode.
 Unicode is an encoding technique that provides a unique coding value for
every character in every language, no matter what the platform.
 Currently, Unicode supports more than 110 different code charts
(languages and symbol sets).
 . If you are interested, you can view the Unicode Web site at www.unicode.org.
Boud Vs. Bit Rate
 Baud is a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with
bit rate (bps).
 Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which
is usually binary.
 Baud, like bit rate, is also a rate of change; however, baud refers to the
rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and
modulation have occurred.
 Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate
and, therefore, the terms symbols per second and baud are often used
interchangeably.
Boud Vs. Bit Rate
 A signaling element is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded as
a change in the amplitude, frequency, or phase. For example, binary
signals are generally encoded and transmitted one bit at a time in the form
of discrete voltage levels representing logic 1s (highs) and logic 0s (lows).
 A baud is also transmitted one at a time; however, a baud may represent
more than one information bit. Thus, the baud of a data communications
system may be considerably less than the bit rate. In binary systems (such
as binary FSK and binary PSK), baud and bits per second are equal.
 However, in higher-level systems (such as QPSK ), bps is always greater
than baud.
Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per
Second
 When a network application is slow, users often demand that someone,
such as a network engineer, do something to make things go faster. What
they don’t understand is that if you want to send data at a faster rate, one
of two things must change:

1. The data must be transmitted with a higher-frequency signal, or

2. more bits per baud must be transmitted.

Furthermore, neither of these solutions will work unless the medium that transmits the signal
is capable of supporting the higher frequencies. To begin to understand all these
interdependencies, it is helpful to both understand the relationship between bits per second
and the frequency of a signal, and to be able to use two simple measures--Nyquist's theorem
and Shannon's theorem--to calculate the data transfer rate of a system.
Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per
Second
 An important relationship exists between the frequency of a signal and the number of bits
a signal can convey per second:
INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE,
BAUD
 theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through
electronic communications systems.
 is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications
system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time.

In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon published a paper relating the

information capacity of a communications channel to bandwidth and signal-
to-noise ratio.(s/n)
I = B x log2 (1+ s/n)
B is bandwidth, s signal power, n-noice power,.
INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE,
BAUD
 Two formulas express the direct relationship between the frequency of a
signal and its data transfer rate:
o Nyquist's theorem and Shannon's theorem.
 Nyquist's theorem calculates the data transfer rate of a signal using its
frequency and the number of signaling levels

Nyquist's theorem : Data rate (bps) = 2 x f x log2 (L)

Where f is the frequency of the signal and L is the number of signaling levels

 Shannon's theorem calculates the maximum data transfer rate of an analog

signal (with any number of signal levels) and incorporates noise
Data rate = f x log2 (1+ s/n)
Or Data rate =3.32* B x log10 (1+ s/n)
Nyquist bandwidth
 According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through
an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the
bandwidth of the medium.

 The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is

called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes the minimum Nyquist
frequency. Thus, fb = 2B,
where fb is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.

 For a given bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B.
Examples:
 For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000
(30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the Shannon limit for information
capacity is

I = (3.32)(2700) log10 (1 + 1000)

= 26.9 kbps

Note: Shannon’s formula is often misunderstood. The results of the preceding example
indicate that 26.9 kbps can be propagated through a 2.7-kHz communications channel. This
may be true, but it cannot be done with a binary system. To achieve an information
transmission rate of 26.9 kbps through a 2.7-kHz channel, each symbol transmitted must
contain more than one bit.
Example on Nyquist bandwidth
 For example, a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of
approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to propagate 5400 bps
through it. However, if more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-
than-binary encoding), more than one bit may be transmitted at a time,
and it is possible to propagate a bit rate that exceeds 2B.

B=fb/N

where fb = channel capacity (bps)

B =minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
N = is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element.
FSK and Bandwidth
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is relatively
simple, low-performance type of digital
modulation.
 FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle
modulation similar to standard frequency
modulation (FM) except the modulating
signal is a binary signal that varies
between two discrete voltage levels
rather than a continuously changing
analog waveform.
 Consequently, FSK is sometimes called
binary FSK (BFSK).
FSK and Bandwidth
 The general expression for FSK is expressed in the next slide
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth
 In below Figure, it can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as
the time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit
time equals the time of an FSK signaling element, and the bit rate equals
the baud.
Cont...
 FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation, as the minimum
bandwidth is not determined from Equation B=fb/N,. The minimum
bandwidth for FSK is given as
Example
DATA TRANSMISSION AND NETWORK
CONNECTION MEDIA
Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to
receiver. We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.

Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.

Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and
ease of installation and maintenance.

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups. Wired or Guided

Media or Bound Transmission Media and Wireless or Unguided Media or
Unbound Transmission Media.
Transmission Channel Parameters
 Band width
o The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that signal. The bandwidth determines the
channel capacity.
 Bit Rate
o Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics. Bit rate is used to describe digital signals. The bit
rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
Examples
1. Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per
minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Hint:
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume
that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is 100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000
bps =1.636 Mbps. A digital signal can have more than two levels. If a signal
has L levels, each level needs log2L bits. A digital signal with eight levels will
need 3bits per level. i.e. Log28 =3
Data Volumes and scaling
 Data Volumes: The volume of data in a single file or file system can be
described by a unit called a byte.
 Below table explain data volume units

 Kilo- means 1,000; a Kilobyte is one thousand bytes.

 Mega- means 1,000,000; a Megabyte is a million bytes.
 Giga- means 1,000,000,000; a Gigabyte is a billion bytes.
 Tera- means 1,000,000,000,000; a Terabyte is a trillion bytes.

 Peta- means 1,000,000,000,000,000; a Petabyte is 1,000 Terabytes.

 Exa- means 1,000,000,000,000,000,000; an Exabyte is 1,000 Petabytes.
 Zetta- means 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; a Zettabyte is 1,000 Exabytes.
 Yotta- means 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; a Yottabyte is 1,000 Zettabytes.
Scale prefixe
Examples of Data Volumes
Unit Value Example
Kilobytes (KB) 1,000 bytes a paragraph of a text document
Megabytes (MB) 1,000 Kilobytes a small novel

Gigabytes (GB) 1,000 Megabytes Beethoven’s 5th Symphony

Terabytes (TB) 1,000 Gigabytes all the X-rays in a large hospital

Petabytes (PB) 1,000 Terabytes half the contents of all US academic research libraries

Exabytes (EB) 1,000 Petabytes about one fifth of the words people have ever spoken
as much information as there are grains of sand on all the world’s
Zettabytes (ZB) 1,000 Exabytes
beaches
Yottabytes (YB) 1,000 Zettabytes as much information as there are atoms in 7,000 human bodies
Frequency Spectrum
Frequency Spectrum
Chords C-E-G
 For reason not yet understood, music sounds good when the notes have a
mathematical relations.
 As an example, the middle-C has a fundamental frequency of 256 Hz and
the next C on the right is an octave higher; which has a fundamental
frequency of 512 Hz exactly double that of the middle C.