EE535: OPTICS & PHOTONICS

LECT. 06 2025 02 02
LECTURE OUTLINE

Topics
•Ch. 2: Wave Optics
•2.4: Simple optical components
•2.5: Interference
Notes
• Term project.
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS

 Let’s start with the relations between optical waves properties at interfaces.
 Let’s assume a plane optical wave coming from air to glass at some angle.
 Obviously, there will be some refraction. But, how the coming wavefronts
related to the ones in the glass?
 The fronts MUST matched at the interface, resulting in some common arc 𝑅.
𝑅
 This means that the phases must match.
 This results in changing the wavelength.
 Let’s find the condition to maintain.
𝜆0
 𝜆1 = = 𝑅 sin 𝜃1
𝑛1

𝜆0
 𝜆2 = = 𝑅 sin 𝜃2
𝑛2

 𝑅 = Cons ⟹ 𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 (Snell’s law)

2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS

 Let’s extend this to more general form. For this, we need the full
wavenumber vector 𝒌.
 𝒌 = 𝑘 𝒂𝑟 The spatial frequency projected in the propagation direction.
 𝒌1 = 𝑛1 𝑘0 sin 𝜃1 𝒂𝑥 + cos 𝜃1 𝒂𝑧
 𝒌2 = 𝑛2 𝑘0 sin 𝜃2 𝒂𝑥 + cos 𝜃2 𝒂𝑧
 As shown earlier, the phases must match.
 What is the phase of a planewave?
 𝜑 =𝒌⋅𝒓

 So, 𝒌1 ⋅ 𝒓 = 𝒌2 ⋅ 𝒓 = 𝒌3 ⋅ 𝒓
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
A. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

1. Reflection from a Planar Mirror:

 𝒌𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑘0 sin 𝜃1 𝒂𝑥 + cos 𝜃1 𝒂𝑧
 𝒌𝑟 = 𝑛1 𝑘0 sin 𝜃1 𝒂𝑥 − cos 𝜃1 𝒂𝑧
 At the interface, 𝒓 = 𝑥𝒂𝑥 + 𝑦𝒂𝑦 + 0 𝒂𝑧

 𝒌𝑖 ⋅ 𝒓 = 𝒌𝑟 ⋅ 𝒓 ⟹ 𝑛1 𝑘0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑘0 sin 𝜃𝑟 ⟹ 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟

2. Reflection and Refraction at a Planar Dielectric Boundary:

 𝒌𝑡 = 𝑛2 𝑘0 sin 𝜃2 𝒂𝑥 + cos 𝜃2 𝒂𝑧

𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟
 𝒌𝑖 ⋅ 𝒓 = 𝒌𝑟 ⋅ 𝒓 = 𝒌𝑡 ⋅ 𝒓 ⟹ ቊ
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

1. Transparent Plate:
 Consider first the transmission of a plane wave through
a transparent plate of refractive index 𝑛 and thickness
𝑑 surrounded by free space.
 If a wave traveling in the 𝑧-direction hits the plate, part will
be reflected, and part will be transmitted.
 The magnitudes of reflected and transmitted parts are not of concern now.
 We should be more interested in the phase shift of the wave before and after the plate to see how the
wavefront will behave.
 So, let’s ignore for now the reflection and transmission coefficients.
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,𝑑)
 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑘0 𝑑 = 𝑒 −𝑗Δ𝜑 (Called – wrongly – the complex amplitude transmittance)
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,0)

𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑑
 Δ𝜑 = 𝑛𝑘0 𝑑 = 2𝜋 No effects if is an integer.
𝜆0 𝜆0
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

1. Transparent Plate:
 What if the wave is incident with an angle?
 The propagation directions before and after the plate are the
same.
 There will be a tilt inside the plate.
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,𝑑)
 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑘0 𝒌⊥ ⋅𝒓⊥ +cos 𝜃1 𝑑
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,0)

 But since the incident wave is a planewave, the transverse

coordinates are irrelevant. So
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑑)
𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑘0 cos 𝜃1 𝑑
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 0)
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

2. Thin Transparent Plate of Varying Thickness:

 Obviously, different structures will have different effects.
 But, let’s assume that the incident angle is extremely small with any
point in the irregular plate.
 Within 𝑑0 , part are inside the plate and other parts are in air.
 At any transverse coordinate:
 𝑑 inside the plate with refractive index 𝑛
 𝑑0 − 𝑑 in air

−𝑗𝑘0 𝑛𝑑 𝑥,𝑦 + 𝑑0 −𝑑 𝑥,𝑦

 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑑0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑛−1 𝑑 𝑥,𝑦

 Furthermore, 𝑑0 is our choice. We can choose is such that 𝑘0 𝑑0 = 𝑚2𝜋

 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑛−1 𝑑 𝑥,𝑦

2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

 Exercise 2.4-1: Transmission Through a Prism.

 Assume that 𝛼 ≪ 1
𝑑
 𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 = ⟹ 𝑑 ≈ 𝛼𝑥
𝑥

 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑑0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑛−1 𝛼𝑥

 The resulted phase shift: Δ𝜑 = −𝑘0 𝑛 − 1 𝛼𝑥

 So, the phase is further shifted linearly with 𝑥.
 So, which will have more phase at 𝑧 = 𝑑0 , Δ𝜑 𝑥1 or Δ𝜑 𝑥2 if 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ?
 Δ𝜑 𝑥2
 This results in tilting the propagation direction toward 𝑥 as the wavefront with larger 𝑥 precedes those
with smaller 𝑥.
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

3. Thin Lens:

 Let’s consider the shown lens, clearly, 𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑑0 − 𝑅 − 𝑅2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

2 2 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
 If 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≪ 𝑅 , 𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑑0 −
2𝑅
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
 So, 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑑0 exp 𝑗𝑘0 (𝑛 − 1)
2𝑅

 In this lens, one size has 𝑅2 → −∞. So,

1 1 1 𝑛−1
= 𝑛−1 − =
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
 Finally, 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0𝑑0 exp 𝑗𝑘0
2𝑓

 This is also what should be expected for double-convex lens

2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

 Exercise 2.4-3: Focusing of a Plane Wave by a Thin Lens.

 Place wave propagating along the optical axis.
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ≈ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑑0 exp 𝑗𝑘
2𝑓
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

4. Diffraction Gratings:
 Definition: A diffraction grating is an optical component that serves to periodically modulate the
phase or amplitude of an incident wave.
 It can be made of a transparent plate with periodically varying thickness or periodically graded
refractive index.
 Other structures can be used for grating as well.

 Consider a transparent plate with varied thickness as shown.

𝑑0 𝑥
 𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐷 + 1 + cos 2𝜋 Λ
2

 The corresponding transmittance:

𝑘0 𝑑0 𝑥
𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ0 exp −𝑗 𝑛 − 1 cos 2𝜋
2 Λ
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

4. Diffraction Gratings:
 A full detail analysis of the grating would require a EM interference pattern.
 This will discussed later in the course.
 For now, the diffracted wave will add up constructively in particular directions.
𝜆
sin 𝜃𝑞 = sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑞 , 𝑞 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
Λ
 In paraxial limit for 𝜃𝑖 ≪ 1, this is reduced to:
𝜆
𝜃𝑞 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑞 , 𝑞 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
Λ
 Diffraction gratings are used as filters and spectrum
analyzers. Since the angles 𝜃𝑞 depend on the wavelength
𝜆 (and therefore on the frequency 𝜈), an incident polychromatic
wave is separated by the grating into its spectral components.
2.4: SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
B. TRANSMISSION THROUGH OPTICAL COMPONENTS

5. Graded-lndex Optical Components:

 As we juts learned, the key of simple optical components is to manipulate the phase shift.
 So far, we just considered constant 𝑛. Can we consider space-dependent 𝑛(𝒓)?
 Certainly yes.
 As an example, let’s assume a transparent plate with 𝑛(𝑥, 𝑦) with affixed thickness 𝑑0 .
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,𝑑0 )
 The transmittance will be: 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 𝑥,𝑦 𝑘0 𝑑0
𝑈(𝑥,𝑦,0)

1
 Exercise 2.4-6: Graded-index lens with 𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑛0 1 − 𝛼 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝛼𝑑0 ≪ 1.
2

1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
 𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛0 𝑘0𝑑0 exp 𝑗𝑛0 𝑘0 𝛼 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑛0𝑑0 exp 𝑗
2 2𝑓
1
 Acting as lens with a focal length of 𝑓 =
𝑛0 𝑘0 𝛼 2
2.5: INTERFERENCE

 Interference is probably the most distinguishing feature

of waves.
 When two or more waves are simultaneously present
in the same region of space and time, the total
wavefunction is the sum of the individual wavefunctions.
 This basic principle of superposition follows from the linearity of the wave equation.
 For monochromatic waves of the same frequency, the superposition principle carries over
to the complex amplitudes, which follows from the linearity of the Helmholtz equation.
 What about the intensity; does the superposition apply to it?
2
 No, 𝐼 = 2 𝑢1 + 𝑢2
2.5: INTERFERENCE

 The phenomenon of interference cannot be explained based on ray optics since it is

dependent on the phase relationship between the superposed waves.
 Remember, the key aspect in wave optics is the phase difference.

 Since the interference is related to the phase difference, do you think the frequency will
play a rule?
 Generally, yes.
 But it can be ignored for monochromatic waves.

 In Sec. 2.5, we will consider monochromatic waves and the polychromatic ones will be
considered as part of Sec. 2.6.
2.5: INTERFERENCE
HISTORY

 Interference is one of the foremost means to prove (or disprove) theories.

1. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO):
 2017 Nobel Prize in physics
 Total cost: $650 Million
2.5: INTERFERENCE
HISTORY

 Interference is one of the foremost means to prove (or disprove) theories.

2. 1887 Michelson–Morley experiment:
 Null results lead to the dismantling of the aether and later to the emergence of relativity.
 1907 Nobel prize “for his optical precision instruments”

3. 1802 Young experiment (double-slit):

 Lead to the acceptance of the wave theory of light.
 Applet: Link for light, sound, and water waves.
 It is applied to detect particles as well due to wave-particle
duality.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PanqoHa_B6c
2.5: INTERFERENCE
A. INTERFERENCE OF TWO MONOCHROMATIC WAVES

 Mathematical Construction for two monochromatic waves of the same frequency:

𝑢1 𝒓, 𝑡 = ℜ 𝑎1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝜈𝑡 = ℜ 𝐼1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝜈𝑡

 Two monochromatic waves: ൞
𝑢2 𝒓, 𝑡 = ℜ 𝑎2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝜈𝑡 = ℜ 𝐼2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝜈𝑡

 Notice that the temporal behavior is the same as they have the same frequency. So, all what we
𝑈1 𝒓 = 𝑎1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 𝒓 = 𝐼1 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 𝒓
need are the complex amplitudes: ቐ
𝑈2 𝒓 = 𝑎2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 𝒓 = 𝐼2 𝒓 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 𝒓

 In linear medium: 𝑈 𝒓 = 𝑈1 𝒓 + 𝑈2 𝒓
 The resulted intensity is: 𝐼 𝒓 = 𝑈 𝒓 2 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 2 = 𝑈1 2 + 𝑈2 2 + 𝑈1∗ 𝑈2 + 𝑈1 𝑈2∗
 After some math: 𝐼 𝒓 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜑2 𝒓 − 𝜑1 𝒓
2.5: INTERFERENCE
A. INTERFERENCE OF TWO MONOCHROMATIC WAVES

 Let’s recall the last result: 𝐼 𝒓 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜑2 𝒓 − 𝜑1 𝒓

 Let the phase difference 𝜑 𝒓 = 𝜑2 𝒓 − 𝜑1 𝒓
 This is call the interference equation. Let’s plot it to see why.
 Clearly, the intensity oscillates with the phase difference.
 When will we have a maximum interference?
 𝜑Max = 2𝑚𝜋 (Constructive interference)
 When will we have a minimum interference?
 𝜑Min = (2𝑚 − 1)𝜋 (Constructive interference)
(2𝑚−1)
 What about 𝜑 = 𝜋?
2
 The interference vanishes
2.5: INTERFERENCE
A. INTERFERENCE OF TWO MONOCHROMATIC WAVES

 So clearly, the interference varies with the phase difference. Does this violate energy
conservation?
 Let’s average the intensity over one interference cycle.
1 2𝜋
 ‫𝐼 ׬‬ 𝒓 = 𝐼12 + 𝐼22
2𝜋 0

 So, the energy conservation is maintained.

 Practically, interference requires coherent light.

 Ordinary light is usually polychromatic with phases randomly
distributed between 0 & 2𝜋.
 The experimental setup must be set to achieve light coherence
before utilizing interference.
2.5: INTERFERENCE
INTERFEROMETERS

 As we just discussed, wave interference is one of the key phenomena routinely utilized in
research fronts.
 Such setups are known as interferometers.

 Let’s consider two identical monochromatic waves propagating in the 𝑧-direction where
one of them is delayed by distance 𝑑 with respect to the other.

𝑈1 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑑
 ൡ ⟹ 𝐼 = 2𝐼0 1 + cos 𝑘𝑑 = 2𝐼0 1 + cos 2𝜋
𝑈2 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝑘 𝑧−𝑑 𝜆

 The resulted interference pattern is shown in the figure.

2.5: INTERFERENCE
INTERFEROMETERS

 The question becomes then how can we induce and control the distance 𝑑.
 This can be achieved by many setups.
 The most common ones are the Mach-Zehnder interferometer, the Michelson interferometer,
and the Sagnac interferometer.
2.5: INTERFERENCE
INTERFERENCE OF TWO OBLIQUE PLANE WAVES

 Now, let’s consider the interference of two oblique plane waves.

 The 1st propagates in the 𝑧-direction: 𝑈1 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧

 The 2nd makes an angle 𝜃 to the 1st: 𝑈2 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝑘 sin 𝜃 𝑥+cos 𝜃 𝑧

 Let’s place an observation frame at 𝑧 = 0, what is the

phase difference then?
 𝜑 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 𝑥
 So, 𝐼 = 2𝐼0 1 + cos 𝑘 sin 𝜃 𝑥
INTERFERENCE PATTERN BY SOUND WAVES

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvJAgrUBF4w