SCNC1111

Scientific Method and Reasoning

Calculus

1
 Function
• A function must produce one and only one output value for
every possible input value
• Please refer to the lecture video Introduction for details.

𝑥 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)

Domain Range
2
 Polynomial Function
A polynomial function 𝑓 is given by
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where
𝑛 is a non-negative integer, called the degree of the polynomial;
𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 are real numbers, called the coefficients of the
polynomial;
𝑎0 is usually called the constant term of the polynomial.

For example, a quadratic function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 is a

polynomial of degree 2. The coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 is 1 and 2
respectively while the constant term is 4.

3
 Polynomial Function: Example
Malaria is an infectious disease transmitted by mosquitoes. The
daily survival probability of adult mosquitoes 𝑝 can be related to
the temperature 𝑇 by the following quadratic function:

𝑝 𝑇 = −0.00167𝑇 2 + 0.054𝑇 + 0.45

(a) When is 𝑝 𝑇 ≥ 0 ?
(b) When is malaria transmission most efficient ?

Please refer to the lecture video Polynomial functions for

solutions.

4
 Exponential Function
An exponential function 𝑃 is a function in which the
independent variable 𝑥 appears in the exponent, e.g., 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥
Or, in a more general form,
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃0 𝑎𝑘𝑥
where 𝑎 is a positive real number, 𝑃0 and 𝑘 are real numbers.

If 𝑎𝑘 > 1, the function is an exponential growth for 𝑥 > 0.

If 0 < 𝑎𝑘 < 1, the function is an exponential decay for 𝑥 > 0.

5
 Natural Exponential Function
From the general form of exponential function, we can see that
the number 𝑎 can be chosen without any loss of generality.
It is usually convenient to choose 𝑎 = 𝑒 ≈ 2.7182818284590,
where 𝑒 is the Euler number. Taking exponents of 𝑒 gives the
natural exponential function, i.e.,

𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑥

The reason for choosing 𝑎 = 𝑒 will be explained later.

Please refer to the lecture video Exponential functions for

details.

6
 Logarithmic Function
An logarithmic function 𝑓 is an inverse function of exponential
function, i.e.,
𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥
where 𝑎 is a positive real number, called the base.

For example, if one wants to evaluate the value of 𝑥 such that

100 = 10𝑥 , we may take logarithm on both sides to obtain 𝑥 =
log10 100 = 2. In other words, it is like asking the question:
‘What should be the exponent to produce the number 100 with
base 10?’

7
 Natural Logarithmic Function
A natural logarithmic function 𝑓 is an inverse function of natural
exponential function, i.e.,
𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
with 𝑒 as the base.

Examples:
1. Simplify ln 3𝑥 − ln 3 .
2. Simplify ln 𝑥 7 − ln(𝑥 3 ).
3. Evaluate ln 𝑒 2 without using a calculator.

Please refer to the lecture video Logarithmic functions for

solutions.

8
 Exp/Log Functions: Example 1
Let 𝐶(𝑡) be the amount of caffeine in the body , where 𝑡 is the
amount of hours since Mary drank coffee. Suppose 𝐶(𝑡) follows
the relation
𝐶 𝑡 = 0.88 𝐶(𝑡 − 1)
(a) Express 𝐶(𝑡) as a function of 𝐶(0).
(b) Mary had 80 mg of caffeine at 6 pm. If she is finally able to
sleep at 1 am, find the amount of caffeine in Mary’s body at
that time.
(c) If Mary wants to sleep at 10 pm, what is the latest time that
she should consume a cup of coffee containing 60 mg of
caffeine ?
Please refer to the lecture video exp/log functions example:
caffeine elimination for solutions.
9
 Exp/Log Functions: Example 2
Example 2: Radiometric dating

Please refer to the lecture video exp/log functions example:

radiometric dating for questions and solutions.

10
 Introduction to differentiation
𝑑𝑓
• Differentiation of a function (represented by 𝑓′(𝑥) or )gives
𝑑𝑥
us the slope of tangent to the graph at a certain point
(so-called the instantaneous rate)
• For example, the slope of the brown line (tangent to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑓
at 𝑥 = 4) can be found by 𝑓 ′ 4 or ȁ𝑥=4 .
𝑑𝑥

11
 Differentiation rules
• How can we obtain the derivative of a given function, let’s say
𝑓(𝑥) ?

• We may apply several simplified differentiation rules

obtained from the first principle (it is related to the concept of
limit which is not in the scope of this course).

• These rules are general that can be applicable to find the

derivative of various functions. As you work out more
problems, you will memorize them gradually.

12
 Power rule
For any non-zero real number 𝑛, the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 can be
obtained by
𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Examples:
1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .
2. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥.
1
−2
3. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 .

Please refer to the lecture video Power rule for solutions.

13
 Constant multiple rule
For any constant 𝑘 and function 𝑓(𝑥), the derivative of 𝑦 =
𝑘𝑓(𝑥) can be obtained by
𝑑
𝑘𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
In other words, ‘𝑘’ can be ‘pulled’ out of the differentiation.
Examples:
4
1. Find the derivative of 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 .
3
2. Find the derivative of 𝑠 = 5𝑡.
3 −1
3. Find the derivative of 𝑥 = 𝑦 2.
2
4. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑘.
Please refer to the lecture video Constant multiple rule for
solutions.
14
 Sum rule
For functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥)
can be obtained by
𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ± 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
In other words, each function is differentiated separately.
Examples:
1 3
1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − .
4 2
2. Find the derivative of 𝑠 = 6.933𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2 .
7𝜋 𝑟 3 +5𝑟+25
3. Find the derivative of 𝐶 = .
3
Please refer to the lecture video Sum rule for solutions.

15
 Rules for special functions
Rule Function Derivative Example
Exponential
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ′ = 𝑒𝑥
function
Logarithmic 1 ′
1
ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥 =
function 𝑥 𝑥
1
Product rule 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑔𝑓′ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 ′
=𝑥⋅ + 1 ln 𝑥
𝑥
Examples:
1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 4).
2. Find the derivative of 𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑡 ln 𝑡 − 2𝑡 log 2 𝑡.

Please refer to the lecture video Rules for special functions for
solutions.

16
 Quotient rule
𝑓 𝑥
For functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), the derivative of 𝑦 = can be
𝑔 𝑥
obtained by
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 2

Examples:
𝑒 𝑥 −1
1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = .
𝑥
𝑥+15 𝑥+1
2. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = .
𝑥−6

Please refer to the lecture video Quotient rule for solutions.

17
 Chain rule
If 𝑓 is a function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 is a function of 𝑥, the derivative of
𝑦 = 𝑓[𝑢(𝑥)] can be obtained by
𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑥
𝑓𝑢 𝑥 = ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑢) ⋅ 𝑢′(𝑥)

The term 𝑢′(𝑥) is so-called the ‘chain’ of the differentiation. This

rule is especially useful to deal with composite function (i.e.,
function inside another function).

Please refer to the lecture video Chain rule for detailed

discussion and solutions to the questions on the next slide.

18
 Chain rule: Examples
1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 16.
2. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 8500𝑒 −9.6×10−5 .
𝑥−1 2
1
3. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑒− 2 .
2𝜋
𝑥2
𝑥 −2
4. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑒 .
2𝜋
5. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 2 ln 1 − 0.5𝑥 .
𝑥2
6. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 4.74 − log10 .
0.1−𝑥
𝑥 2 −16
7. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = .
𝑥
𝑥 2 −16
8. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 5 sin2 .
𝑥

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 Summary
Rule Function First derivative Example

Power rule 𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 3 ′ = 3𝑥 2

Exponential
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ′ = 𝑒𝑥
function
Logarithmic 1 ′
1
ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥 =
function 𝑥 𝑥
Multiplication
𝑐𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑓′(𝑥) 2𝑥 3 ′ = 2 ⋅ 3𝑥 2 = 6𝑥 2
by a constant
Sum rule 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ± 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ′ = 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
1
Product rule 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑔𝑓′ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 ⋅ + 1 ln 𝑥
𝑥
′
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔𝑓 ′ − 𝑓𝑔′ ln 𝑥 𝑥 ⋅ 1/𝑥 − 1 ln 𝑥
Quotient rule =
𝑔 𝑥 𝑔2 𝑥 𝑥2
2𝑥 + 3 7 ′
Chain rule 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑔′(𝑥) 6
= 2 ⋅ 7 2𝑥 + 3
20
 Second Derivative
The second derivative of a function (represented by 𝑓′′(𝑥) or
𝑑2 𝑓
)
gives us the rate of change of slope of tangent to the graph
𝑑𝑥 2
at a certain point (, i.e., how fast the slope is changing).

To calculate 𝑓′′(𝑥), one may find the first derivative of the

function as we did in the previous exercise, followed by
differentiating the first derivative again.

Similarly, we may obtain higher order derivatives (e.g. 𝑓′′′(𝑥),

𝑓 (4) (𝑥), and so on).

21
 Application of Differentiation
Recall:
• 𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥) gives the rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥.
• In graphical representation, it gives the slope of tangent at a
particular point.

How is this useful ?

• In physics, if one knows the displacement / distance of an
object as a function of time 𝑡, i.e., 𝑠(𝑡), the velocity / speed
(rate of change of displacement / distance) of the object is
𝑑𝑠
represented by , while its acceleration (rate of change of
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑠
velocity) is represented by .
𝑑𝑡 2

22
 Application of Differentiation
How is this useful ?
• In chemistry, if one knows the concentration of a product in a
certain reaction as a function of time 𝑡, i.e., [A](𝑡), the rate of
reaction (rate of change of concentration) is represented by
𝑑𝐴
.
𝑑𝑡

• In biology, if one knows the population of a species in a

certain ecosphere as a function of time 𝑡, i.e., 𝑃(𝑡), the rate
𝑑𝑃
of change of population is represented by .
𝑑𝑡

• Message: calculus is everywhere!

23
Application of Differentiation: Example
1. DNA hybridization (a reaction with second-order kinetics)
Please refer to the lecture video Rate of change motivating
example – second order reaction for question setting and
solutions.

2. Koala population
Please refer to the lecture video Rate of change motivating
example – koala population for question setting and solutions.

24
 Related rates
Sometimes we are interested to find the relations between the
rate of change of various quantities.

A metallic sphere is heated to expand uniformly in all directions.

Suppose its radius increases at a rate of 1 cm/s, what will be the
rate of increase of its volume when the radius is 2 cm?
4
Given: volume of sphere 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

25
 Related rates (Cont.)
𝑑𝑉
We aim to find out .
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑡,
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑 𝑟 3
= 𝜋
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑟3 𝑑 𝑟3 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
Using chain rule = ⋅
= 3𝑟 ⋅ , we obtain
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 2
𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
These rates are hence related. We know that = 1 cm/s.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
Substituting 𝑟 = 2 cm, we find ȁ = 16𝜋 cm3/s.
𝑑𝑡 𝑟=2
Please refer to the lecture video Related rates introduction for
one more example regarding bacterial growth.
26
Graphical Representation of First Derivative
Recall that 𝑓′(𝑥) represents the slope of tangent to the graph
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at a certain point. What does its sign mean?
• 𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0: 𝑓(𝑥) increasing, positive slope of tangent
• 𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0: 𝑓(𝑥) decreasing, negative slope of tangent
• 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0: 𝑥 is a critical point, slope of tangent = 0

27
 First derivative test
Critical points
To determine whether they are maximum and minimum points,
one way is to look for the sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) around the critical points.

Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 at 𝑥 < 𝑎 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 at 𝑥 > 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a

maximum point. Vice versa, it can be shown that 𝑥 = 𝑏 is a
minimum point. This is a useful technique to deduce extremum
points when we do not have a graphing calculator.
28
 First derivative test: Examples
1. Find the critical points of the graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and determine
whether they are minimum or maximum.

2. Find the critical points of the graph 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 3 and

determine whether they are minimum or maximum.

Please refer to the lecture video First derivative test for

solutions.

29
 Graphical Representation of Second Derivative
𝑑2 𝑦
• Second derivative, 𝑓′′(𝑥) or , gives the rate of change of
𝑑𝑥 2
slope of tangent

• 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 > 0: • 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 < 0:
• 𝑓′(𝑥) is increasing • 𝑓′(𝑥) is decreasing
• 𝑓(𝑥) concave upward • 𝑓(𝑥) concave downward

30
 Second derivative test
An alternative to locate maximum and minimum.
𝑑
1. Find critical points by setting and solving 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.
2. Compute the second derivatives of the critical points
• If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) is positive, then 𝑥 is a minimum point.
• Slope of tangent is increasing
• If 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 is negative, then 𝑥 is a maximum point.
• Slope of tangent is decreasing

31
 Optimization
• To maximize or minimize a certain quantity, e.g., reaction rate,
population …

• How ? By finding the corresponding extremum of the given

functions – first and second derivative tests!

Examples:
1. Range of kicking a football
2. Building design

Please refer to the lecture videos Optimization – Introduction

and Optimization example – building design for question and
solutions.
32
Inflection points
• 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 0
– 𝑥 is an inflection /
inflexion point
– We may need the third
derivative test to further
verify it, but it is not in
the scope of this course.

33
 Inflection points: Examples
1. Titration curve
2. Logistic model

Please refer to the lecture video Concept of inflection points for

question and solutions.

34
 Integration
• The reverse process of differentiation

• Integration is about accumulation, summing up, finding area

and volume

• There are two kinds of integration:

• Indefinite integration
• Definite integration

35
 Antiderivatives
• The inverse product of differentiating a function

• For example, we know that the derivative of the function

𝑥2
𝐹 𝑥 = is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥.
2
In other words, the antiderivative of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is
𝑥2
𝐹 𝑥 = .
2

• Similarly, the antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 would be 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

1
while that of 𝑓 𝑥 = would be 𝐹 𝑥 = ln ȁ𝑥ȁ.
𝑥

36
 Antiderivatives
An antiderivative of 𝑓 is any function 𝐹 such that
𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)

A general antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is called an indefinite integral

denoted as follows:

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶

where 𝐶 is the integration constant (recall the fact that the

derivative of a constant is zero, and hence its value would not
affect the derivative of R.H.S.)
Note that 𝑓(𝑥) is called the integrand while 𝑥 is called the
integration variable.

37
 Antiderivatives
Many ‘integration rules’ can be derived from the respective
differentiation rules, for example, sum rule and constant
multiple rule. For details, please refer to the lecture video
Antiderivatives.

Example: Falling coconut

Please refer to the lecture video Antiderivatives example: falling
coconut for question and solutions.

38
 Integration by Substitution
It is usually the case that the integrand is a composite function of
the integration variable, where we cannot integrate directly.
Hence we have to use the chain rule, or more conveniently,
integration by substitution (𝑢-substitution in the video).
1. Let 𝑢(𝑥) be a function of the integration variable 𝑥. The
function is of your choice to simplify the integral. You will
learn how to choose one by working on examples.
𝑑𝑢
2. Change the integration variable from 𝑥 to 𝑢 by finding ,
or
𝑑𝑥
a relation between 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑑𝑥.
3. Replace all variables 𝑥 in the integral by the new variable 𝑢.
4. Calculate the integral, or proceed with another substitution.

39
 Integration by Substitution: Examples
1. Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬+ 4 5 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑥 2
2. Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬.
3. Evaluate ‫𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑓 ׬‬′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Please refer to the lecture video Integration by substitution for

solutions.

40
 Definite Integral
Definite integration computes the area under the curve within
an interval; it represents the sum of the dependent variable.
For example, the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the
vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, and the horizontal 𝑥-axis can be
represented by
𝑏
න 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are respectively called
the lower limit and the upper limit
of the integration.

41
 Definite Integral
• The area is positive if it is
above the 𝑥-axis while it is
negative if it is below the 𝑥-
axis.
• Hence we may interpret
𝑏
‫ 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬as (the area of
the portion above the 𝑥-
axis) – (the area of the
portion below the 𝑥-axis)

Source: Wikimedia Commons

42
 Definite Integral
Many rules in handling indefinite integrals also apply to definite
integrals. There is a particularly interesting property of definite
integral:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
i.e., the area over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is the sum of area over the
intervals [𝑎, 𝑐] and [𝑐, 𝑏].

Example: obtaining the total population from the population

growth rate curve

Please refer to the lecture video Definite integral (II) for question
and solutions.
43
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The theorem consists of two parts:
1. If 𝐹(𝑥) is a function which is differentiable over the interval
[𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐹′(𝑥) (i.e., 𝐹 is an anti-derivative of 𝑓),
then
𝑏
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a “well-behaved” function defined over the interval
[𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑥
𝑑
න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

44
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: Examples
1. Find the area under the graph 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 from 𝑥 = −1 to
𝑥 = 1.
2. Find the area between 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥.
3. Suppose the population density of a city is modelled by
−0.01𝑟 2
𝜌 𝑟 = 5000𝑒 persons per km2, where 𝑟 is the
distance from the city centre. Calculate the population within
a 10 km radius of the city centre.

Please refer to the lecture video series FTC example for

solutions.

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 A Tip to Learn Calculus Well

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