Information Technology Notes 2013

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY NOTES

Information Technology
It is an organized combination and use of hardware, software, telecommunications,
database management and other information processing technologies used in a
computer-based information system.

Information technology transforms data into a variety of useful information products

specifically by the use of a computer.

Computer
 It is a device that has ability to accept data, internally store and execute a program
of instructions, perform mathematical, logical and manipulative operations on the
data and reports on the results.
 Put simply, it is a machine that accepts data (input) and processes it into useful
information (output).

Computer System
 It is an interrelated system of input, processing, output, storage and control
components
 Thus a computer system consists input and output devices, primary and storage
devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU and other
peripherals

Data and Information concepts

The terms data and information are loosely used interchangeably in ordinary
discussions. The terms, however, are different in their usage in the field of information
systems.

Data – it is the complete range of facts, events, transactions, opinions, judgments that
exist both within and outside the organization. Data are raw facts from which
information is produced.

Information – it is part of the total data available which is appropriate to the

requirements of a particular user or group of users. It is processed data upon which a
user may rely for decision.

A computer performs the following basic functions:

(a) Input – computer accepts and captures data from outside for processing
(b) Processing – a computer performs operations on data it holds
(c) Storage – a computer holds data before, during and after processing
(d) Output – a computer produces data for use (information)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their size and type

1.Word length- a digital computer operates on binary digits, 0 and 1. It can understand
information only in terms of 0s and 1s. a binary digit is called a bit and a group of 8 bits
is called a byte. The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is
called its word length. Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32, 64 bits. Word length
is the measure of the computing power of a computer and the longer the word length,
the more powerful the computer is.

2.Speed- computers can calculate at very high speeds. A microcomputer eg can execute
millions of instructions per second over and over again without making any mistake. As
the power of the computer increases, the speed also increases.

3.Storage- computers have their main memory and auxiliary memory systems which can
store a large amount of data. What makes a computer unique is that information can be
retrieved in a few seconds

4.Accuracy- the accuracy of a computer system is very high. Errors in hardware can
occur but error detecting and correcting techniques will prevent false results. In most
cases the errors will be to the human error rather than technological.

5.Versatility- computers are very versatile machines ie they can perform activities
ranging from simple calculations to performing complex activities

6.Diligence- means being constant and earnest in effort and application. Human beings
suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration, hence will affect their
performance

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Computers can be classified as general purpose or special purpose. General-purpose

computers are used to perform a variety of applications and the most common in
business while special purpose computers are used for specific or limited applications
e.g. military or scientific research.

Computers can be classified by size or by use

Categories of Computer Systems (by size)

(i) Micro computers
(ii) Mini computers
(iii) Mainframe computers

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(iv) Super computers

Microcomputers
 They are also called Personal Computers (PCs) or Desktop Computers.
 These are relatively small and inexpensive.
 They consist of a single processor or a chip
 The system is normally made up of the microprocessor, keyboard, VDU one or
two floppy disk drives, a printer and a hard disk drive.
 It has a hard disk capacity of 20Mb to 520Mb
 May use a color or monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT)
 Have capabilities for networking.
 They are single user.
 They occupy little space.
 They are capable of multiprogramming.
 They are compatible with a wide range of software.
 PCs come in a variety of sizes: notebooks (handheld), laptops, desktops and floor
standing.

Minicomputer System (Mid-range Computers)

 They are systems the size of a small table that can accommodate a number of users
at a time.
 They have storage capability larger than personal computers.
 They can support a variety of transaction processing activities

Hardware features
- Support magnetic tape storage
- They are multi-user more than 100 users at time for super minis
- Have multiple hard disks, both fixed and exchangeable
- Can be upgraded when necessary
- They do not require a special environment to work so can allow for
decentralisation.
- They are less expensive than the mainframe systems
- They have bigger capacities than microprocessors, some have 32 bit
microprocessors.

Mainframe computers
 These are large, powerful computers with a lot of processing capabilities.
 They are suitable for medium-size to large corporations.
 They can also be linked together to form a powerful and flexible system.

Hardware Features
- Similar to minicomputers but have several large processors and high
processing speeds of up to 200 million instructions per second (mips)

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- They have massive amounts of storage power.
- They can use high speed line printers
- They have a large number of magnetic disks and tape units with large
capabilities
- They are multi-user and multi processing
- They have improved reliability
- Their performance may be enhanced by slotting a smaller system, like a
minicomputer between the terminal and the main processor - the front end
processor (FEP)
- Both processors run concurrently with the FEP passing on partially processed
data to the main frame for further processing.
- They, however, are expensive to buy and maintain, they need special and
very expensive software and they also require a special environment.
- They can be used for large corporations (such as large international banks)
and government departments

Supercomputer Systems
These are extremely powerful mainframe computer systems. They are specifically
designed for high-speed numeric calculations. These an process hundreds of millions
instructions per second (mips)

They can be used by government research agencies, national weather forecasting,

spacecraft construction and navigation.

Considerations on classifications based on size

The classification of computers based on the physical size of the computer has become
blurred and a bit misleading. Some seemingly small systems can perform more
powerfully than the larger ones. The power of the computer system depends on the
microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a type of an integrated circuit (ic). It has two distinct characteristics -

word size and speed of operation.

Word size - the number of bits dealt with at the same time, some processors are 8 bit,
others even 32 bit. The larger the word size the more powerful a computer system is. So
some physically bigger systems may have smaller word sizes and hence less power.

Speed of the microprocessor - it is the clock rate or rate of data transfer, it is the rate at
which data bits are moved around inside at bits per second (megahertz) this is also
called the baud rate. Systems with higher speeds tend to be more powerful though they
tend to be physically small.

Computer classification by use

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1. The Word Processor - it is a computer used to produce office documents usually

in text. It has very limited memory and processing capabilities. They are cheap to
buy

2. Home Computer - it is a cheap computer that is used for domestic purposes e.g.
programmes for games and controlling home finances.

3. Personal Computer - it is a microcomputer that is usually for use by one person

in an office or at home.

4. Desktop - any computer designed to be used on a desk in an office environment

5. Workstation - a computer terminal (PC or desktop) designed to support the work

of one person. It can be high-powered or have other superior capabilities to PCs
or ordinary desktops e.g. capacity to do calculations, graphics and other
advanced logical operations.

6. Lap - top - it is a small computer with a flat screen that a user can place on his
lap. It is portable and has an in-built rechargeable battery that can support it
when there is no power from the mains. It can be carried in a briefcase.

7. Embedded Computers - These are computers in other devices that cannot be

accessed directly e.g. those in petrol pumps, ATMs, vending machines,
cellphones and elevators.

COMPONENTS AND CONFIGURATION OF A COMPUTER

Computer Hardware- refers to the physical components of a computer both mechanical

and electronic.

A computer is made up of the following components.

Input devices
Central Processing Unit
Memory
Secondary Storage unit
Output devices

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The configuration of a basic computer system

Processor

CONTROL UNIT
Interprets stored
instructions in
sequence. Issues
commands to all
elements of the
computer

ARITHMETIC &
LOGIC UNIT
Performs
Arithmetic &
logic
functions

INPUT OUTPUT
Data and Information
-the results of
instructions
processing

MAIN MEMORY (MAIN

AUXILLARY)
Holds data,
instructions and
results of
processing

AUXILLARY STORAGE
(BACKING/SECONDARY STORAGE)
To supplement main memory

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Key

Data Instruction flow

Command/Signal flow

INPUT DEVICES/METHODS

These facilitate communication between the user and the computer. They facilitate the
insertion of data into the computer for processing.

(a) The Visual Display Unit (VDU)

 This is sometimes referred to as the monitor
 Most VDUs use a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a liquid crystal display (LCD)
 The screen allows the user to view and monitor data while input is being
made from another source such as the keyboard, mouse etc.
 It allows the user to position the data
 It allows the user to view a screen
 It allows the user to scroll up and down on the screen
 It is also regarded as an output device since it displays processed data
too.

(b) Keyboard
 A keyboard is laid out like a typewriter
 It allows data to be typed in by the pressing of the relevant keys
 The pressed key or instruction is displayed or executed
 This is the most commonly used input device
(Study Key-to-disk systems, Key-to-diskette systems –Refer to Clifton)

(c) Mouse
 It is a hand held pointing device electronically connected to the
computer which is used to control the cursor or a pointer on the screen
through the rolling motion of a ball on a flat surface.
 The cursor or pointer on the video screen moves in the same direction
as the movement of the mouse.

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 When the pointer is on the required menu item (icon) a button is clicked
to select that item.
(d) Light Pen
 It is a pen-shaped device that uses photoelectric circuitry to enter
data into the computer through a special video screen
 A user can write on the video display
 The high sensitive pen enables the computer to calculate the
coordinates of the points on the screen touched by the light pen
 The handwriting or graphic is digitalized, accepted as input and
displayed on the VDU
 Input therefore is directly onto the screen
(e) Touch Screens
 Use an inlaid screen to accept input through the act of physically
touching the screen
 The computer senses the selected position and execute the
instruction accordingly
 This device works more suitably with menu driven applications

(f) Optical Character Readers

 These use photoelectric cells to measure the amount of light reflected
from a particular set of characters in a particular font
 It then transfers the details to a computer
 The reader incorporates a light beam which follows the outline of the
characters being read
 It compares these with stored reference characters
 The most common fonts are OCR-A (American)and OCR-B (European)
(g) Page Scanners
 These devices read documents, digitalise them and sent them for
processing by the computer
 These are like photocopying machines that can read a wide variety of
text and graphics including photographs.

(h) Bar Code Readers

 Bar coding is the representation of code numbers or other data in the
form of optical or magnetic bars on a data carrier (badge) which may
be tag, label, ticket, plastic card
 A bar code reader reads the bar coding and allows the processing of
information relating to the data
 The bar code reader is usually hand held and uses a laser beam to
read.
 When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short
sound.

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 These are widely used on bank credit cards and in libraries to identify
books and users

(i) Point of Sale (POS)/Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)

 These are used in supermarkets
 A POS or EPOS incorporates a scanner (bar code reader), a printer and
a keyboard built into a service point
 An item is passed through a window through which the scanner can
see the bar code and thereby identifies the item; alternatively a hand
held scanner is used to do the same thing.
 When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short
sound.
 The linked central computer then automatically looks up details
relating to the item.
 The details are then printed on the customer’s receipt

(j) Voice Data Entry (VDE)

 Can also be called voice input or speech recognition
 A voice recognizing device analyses and classifies speech or vocal
tract patterns
 The device converts the speech into digital codes for entry into the
computer
 These are suitable where users do not wish to use their hands to
input data e.g. sorting of luggage at an airport, recording of weight in
a slaughterhouse or butchery.
 However, their use is limited by the limited nature of recognizable
vocabulary
 The computer needs to be “trained” to recognize an individual’s
voice.
 There are bound to be in accuracies in the data input so there is need
for a careful proof reading by the user.

(k) Video Input

 Video images can be entered into the computer from sources such as
a TV receiver, VCR or camcorder.
 The data is digitalized and compressed for storage on the computer’s
memory sites.
 This method is used to input and store information for a broadcaster
of producer of optical disks

OUTPUT DEVICES

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There are two forms of output devices, those that produce hardcopy (permanent) and
those that produce softcopy.
Printers are hardcopy devices while the VDU is a softcopy device.

Hardcopies are needed when copies are to be taken away from the computer to be sent
to a user of the information thereon, or to be filed away or even as legal
documentation.

Computers, therefore can produce a number of different documents e.g. reports, sales
invoices, payrolls, or graphics.

Other Forms Of Computer Output

Speech Output (Sound Output)

Some computers are capable of producing speech. The computer can actually speak out
from a stored digital representation of either words or other sounds. A person's voice
can be stored and reproduced later.

These method of output is of great use to the blind, or in poor light. Advanced forms of
speech output are being used to answer telephones, answer some inquiries from an
organization's callers etc.

Computer Output on Microforms (COM)

It is the recording of computer output onto microfilm or microfiche (microforms).

Recording onto the microfilms and microfiches can be done on-line or via a magnetic
tape in order to convert the computer's digital representation of data into microforms.
The recording is a way of data storage in which the computer stores the data in a
reduced (compacted) way on the film or fiche. The stored data can be retrieved later
through the use of a reader and editing can be done. Microforms are much easier to
store than ordinary hardcopies and last much longer. Accessing and finding the required
information can be made easier by indexing the film or fiches.

COM is most suitable where large amounts of data are processed but are to be used
much later e.g. in a government registry department (birth registrations, important
national statistics for example population censuses.

Graph Plotters
These are used to plot graphs, maps and other forms of graphic onto a medium usually
larger than the size of a normal paper. They can print in different colours.

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THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

It is the unit of the computer system that includes the circuits that control the
interpretation and execution of instructions. It is the most important component of a
computer system. It consists of the CU, the ALU and the registers. A computer may have
more than one processor and this can help improve the performance of the computer
by increasing its processing power.
Functions of the processor
 To control the use of the memory to store data and instructions
 To control the sequence of operations
 To give instructions to all parts of the computer to carry out processing

The CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits; the control unit (CU) and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The primary (main) memory is an extension of the CPU and
assists the CPU in its operations.

The Control Unit (CU)

 It is the nerve center of the computer which controls and co-ordinates all
hardware operations i.e. those of peripheral units, main memory and the
processor itself.
 It also controls the sequence of the operations.
 The unit fetches (obtains) the instruction from the main memory
 It then interprets it
 It then executes the instruction by sending a command signal to the appropriate
hardware device in the computer system, ordering it to perform required
operations.
 The control unit is driven by a 'clock pulse'; the rate of the clock is called the
speed.

The Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU)

This has two major functions
 Carries out arithmetic tasks e.g. division, addition etc
 Performs logical operations e.g. comparing data items

How the ALU operates:

Data items to be processed are fetched from the main memory as directed by the CU
into registers or accumulators where they are stored. The ALU then performs the
operations as directed by the CU. The ALU leaves the result in a data register from
where they are placed into the main memory again under the direction of the CU.

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Processor structure

Address bus
Memory
Other
Address
Register
Register
Data bus Main memory

Memory Data
Register

Control bus

Arithmetic Control unit

Logic Unit

Electronic
pulses
Electronic
clock

Buses
It is the common pathway through which the processor sends/receives data and
commands to and from primary and secondary storage and all I/O peripheral devices.
Three sets of wires called buses connect the processor to the main memory and I/O
devices. These are address bus, data bus and the control bus.

Address bus
Carries the address information from the processor to the main memory and any other
devices attached to the bus. It is unidirectional or one-way only. The number of wires in
the address bus (width of the bus) determines the number of storage locations which
the processor can address. A typical microcomputer with 32 wires in the address bus is
said to have a 32-bit address bus.

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Data bus
Carries data to and from the processor, main memory and any other devices attached to
it. It is therefore bi-directional or two-way. The number of wires in the data bus
determines the quantity of data which the bus can carry

Control bus
Is made up of a number of separate wires or lines, each with its own function. These
include the read, write, clock, interrupt and reset

Clock –carries a series of clock pulses at a constant rate. These clock pulses are used to
keep the processor and its related components in step with one another. Clock rate is
the frequency at which the clock generates pulses and is measured in Hertz. It is one
way of increasing the performance of a computer system.
Interrupt – is a signal to the processor, typically from an input or output device. It allows
peripheral devices to communicate with the processor. It also causes a break in the
execution of the processor’s current program.

Reset – is used to return the processor and the whole computer system to its initial
state, as if it has just been switched on. The main use of the reset line is to recover from
a system crash

Machine cycle (fetch-execute)

Is the name given to the way in which the processor takes in an instruction from
memory (fetch) and carries out that instruction (execute). It consists of two parts or
phases.
Fetch instruction
RAM to CU

Instruction time
Place result
in memory Decode instruction- CU

ALU to
RAM
Execution time

Execute instruction- ALU

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Instruction time
Fetch instruction- the next machine-language instruction to be executed is retrieved or
fetched from RAM or cache memory and loaded to the instruction register in the CU.

Decode instruction- the instruction is decoded and interpreted.

Execution time
Execute instruction- using whatever processor resources needed, primarily the ALU, the
instruction is executed

Place result in memory- the results are placed in the appropriate memory position or
the accumulator

The Main Memory

It is an extension of the CPU which gives immediate access to data and programs. It is
also called Immediate Access Memory (IAS). The main memory holds three types of
contents which are:
-program instructions to be executed or being executed
-Data to be processed
-Results of processing

Operational features
 The memory has uniquely addressable storage locations that are easily
accessible to the CU.
 Random Access - it is possible to fetch data from the locations in main storage in
any order and time taken to access the location does not depend on the position
of the location.
 Volatility - the main memory can be volatile or non-volatile depending on the its
physical characteristics
 Details of single location - Each location consists of tiny devices that can take two
states (on/off). The two states of each device are used to represent binary (0 -
off, 1 - on). Each location in the main memory holds a unit of data called a word.
Some computers had locations holding 8 binary digits and were therefore said to
have an 8-bit word. Other computers have 16 bit storage locations, while others
tend to have 32 bit locations.
The Random Access Memory (RAM)
This forms the largest part of the Main Memory and is often used to measure the power
of a computer. It is used for temporary storage of data and programs during processing.
RAM contains user data and application programs being processed. Data may be read
from RAM and data can also be written onto and stored on RAM. RAM contents are
volatile i.e. stored data is lost and the contents disappear if the power is interrupted or
when computer is switched off.
Storage capacity on RAM

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The number of storage locations in RAM dictates the storage capacity or size of the
computer. Storage on computer is quoted in kilobytes (Kb) or megabytes (Mb)

8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 X 1024 bytes = 1 megabyte
1024 X 1024 X 1024 bytes = 1 gigabyte

Types of RAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Is a type of RAM chip which needs to have its contents constantly refreshed or any data
contained in it will be lost.

Static RAM (SRAM)

A type of RAM chip that doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed. It retains its contents
as long as power is applied to the chip. It has much faster access speed than DRAM and
so is used in the processor’ cache memory. Another use for SRAM is to hold the
computer’s date and time settings. It is able to do this when the computer is switched
off because it is powered by a small battery. The majority of computer’s main memory is
made up of DRAM since it is much less expensive to produce than SRAM.

The Read Only Memory (ROM)

It is used for permanent storage it holds the software programs such as operating
systems, interpreters and compilers. The programs are written as part of the
manufacturing process and the user cannot alter them. ROM cannot be written on, it
only allows its contents to be read. ROM contains data and instructions that the
computer needs all the time from the moment it is switched on. ROM contents are said
to be non-volatile i.e. they do not disappear or get lost when the computer is switched
off or when power to the computer has been interrupted.

Other Types of ROM

 PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory - can be programmed by the user,

the data and instructions are held permanently once the PROM is programmed.
It is empty of data when manufactured.
 EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory - It is like PROM but can be
erased and reprogrammed. The EPROM must be removed from the computer in
order to be erased thus the complete program has to be reinserted.
 EAROM - Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory - It can be read, erased and
written on by electrical methods without removing it from the computer.
 Flash ROM- Has the advantage that it may be reprogrammed while it is still
inside the computer. It is now a popular backing storage medium and is used in
USB flash drives and memory cards.

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Virtual memory- a way of using fast backing storage as temporary location for programs
and data. It is useful in situations where a computer has insufficient RAM to hold a
complete program and its associated data. Sets aside part of the computer’s backing
storage device(like a hard disk) as a temporary storage area. Data and programs are
swapped between RAM and the backing storage device as the processor requires them
for processing.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

This is also called backing storage or auxiliary storage. It is used to supplement the
computer's main memory. Main memory is volatile and expensive, therefore backing
storage is used to hold programs and data files when they are not required in the main
memory. The speed of accessing backing store is much slower than that for accessing in
IAS.

Such devices include Memory cards, Memory sticks, CDs, DVDs, External hard drives etc

Measures of performance
Clock speed- clock signal is carried out by one of the lines on the control bus. The clock
generates clock pulses at a constant rate. Everything that the processor does is kept
precisely in time with the clock.

MIPS- millions of instructions per second is a measure of performance based on the

average number of machine code instructions executed.

FLOPS- floating point operations per second is the measure of the arithmetical
calculating speed of a computer system.

Factors affecting system performance

Data bus width
Determines the quantity of data which the bus can carry at any given time. A computer
with a 32bit data bus can carry 32bits of data or instructions at a time. This means it has
a word length of 32bits. Increasing the data bus will increase the quantity of data which
the bus can carry at any one time

Use of cache memory

Is much faster for the processor to access data and instructions held in cache memory
than in main memory because it is made up of fast static RAM rather than DRAM
Increasing clock speed
Adding more main memory
Adding more processors

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SOFTWARE

Software refers to computer programs that control the workings of the computer
hardware, along with the program documentation used to explain the programs to the
user.

Computer programs are sets of instructions or statements to the computer that direct
the circuitry within the hardware to operate in a certain fashion.

Software can be classified into Three different categories.

Systems Software
Application Software
Development Software

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

It is a collection of programs that interact with the computer hardware and application
software programs creating a layer of insulation between the two. Systems Software
contains instructions which:
(a) Manage a computer system’s hardware components to coordinate them so that
they work efficiently
(b) Schedule the computer’s time to make the best use of that time.

Systems Software includes a variety of programmes such as:

(i) Operating Systems
(ii) Database Management Systems
(iii) Communications Control Programs
(iv) Service and Utility Programs
(v) Programming Language Translators
Operating Systems
This forms the largest component of Systems Software.
 It is a system of programs that run or control the execution of computer programs
and act as an interface with application programs.

 It is an integrated system of programs that manages the operations of the CPU,

controls the input. Output and storage resources and activities of a computer
system.

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 The primary purpose of the operating system is to maximise the productivity of a
computer system. It minimises the amount of user intervention required during data
entry and processing. It helps application programs perform common operations
such as entering data, saving, retrieving files, printing and displaying output.

Functions of an Operating System

Generally the operating system is expected to perform five basic functions

(a) User Interfacing – an Operating System allows a user to communicate with the
computer in loading programs, accessing files and accomplishing tasks through
command driven, menu driven or graphical user interfaces. In command driven
interfaces, the user uses brief end commands, in menu driven interfaces the user
selects choices from menus of options, in graphical user interface (GUI) the user
selects icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other images to him get things done by the
system.

(b) Operating Environment Management – Use of GUI enables the user to connect
to other separate application packages so that they can communicate and work
together and share data files. Operating environment packages provide icon
displays and support the use of some input devices to allow the running and
output of several programs to be displayed at the same time. The Operating
System allows for multitasking – i.e. where several programs or tasks can be
processed at the same time.

(c) Resource Management – Resource management programs of the operating

system manage the hardware resources of a computer system including the
CPU, memory, secondary storage devices and input/output peripherals. For
example a memory program keeps track of where data and programs are stored.
They subdivide memory into sections and swap parts of programs and data
between main memory and secondary storage devices. This operation then can
provide virtual memory capability i.e. the real memory capacity in main memory
is larger than the capacity of its normal memory circuits.

(d) File Management – The file management programs in the operating system
control the creation, deletion and access of data and programs. The programs
also keep track of the physical location of files on secondary storage units. They
maintain directories of information about the location characteristics of files
stored on a computer system’ s secondary storage devices.

(e) Task Management – The task management programs of an operating system

manage the accomplishment of computing tasks as needed by the user. They
give each task a slice of the CPU’s time and interrupt the CPU operations to

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substitute other tasks. Task management may involve multitasking – where
several computing tasks can occur at the same time. Multitasking may be in the
form of multiprogramming (several programs are running at the same time).
The operating system allows for time sharing – where the computing tasks of
several users can be processed at the same time. Multitasking depends on the
computing power of the CPU if too many programs are running concurrently the
system may be overloaded or processing slowed down. Example of multitasking:
printing and typing at the same time, word processing and financial analysis,
browsing the internet and word processing.

Popular Operating Systems

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
 It has been widely in use especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took
over.
 It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a given
time.
 It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one task
at a time
 Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system
through the use of commands that are fed into the computer usually after the
prompt sign (>) e.g. C:\>cls (Command to clear the screen)
 Instructions are put in only through the keyboard
 Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled
 The operating system is not user-friendly

Windows
 A widows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based
operating system.
 It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the
computer through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other
forms of images (mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
 True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at
the same time.
 Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the
same time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked
together.
 Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other
audio, photographs and video.
 Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main
memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
 Deleted file go to recycle bin
 Makes use of easier input methods e.g. mouse, joystick

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 Windows operating systems has MS-DOS option
 Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology)
(1993) and Windows 95.
 In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display
screen that can have a different display.

UNIX
 It was originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
 It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
 Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and
microcomputers.
 It is a popular choice for network servers.

The Macintosh System

 It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers
 It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.

It is made up of the following programs:

Language translators
Utility programs
Control programs
Communication programs

Language translators and Utility programs

Non-machine languages must be converted into machine language to be executed by

the CPU. This is done by systems software called language translators.

A language translator converts a statement from a high-level programming language

into machine language called source code whereas the machine language code is
refereed to as the object code. The translator converts the command given in human
language into the form the computer has been programmed to understand before
executing the instruction.

There are two types of language translators – Interpreter & Compiler

Interpreter

This is a language translator that converts each statement in a program into machine
language and executes the programme statement at a time

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Compiler

This language translator translates a complete program into a complete machine

language program. The result is a program in machine language that can be run in its
entirety, with a compiler, program execution is a two-stage process. First, the compiler
translates the program into a machine language; second the machine language program
is executed.

Compilers run faster than interpreters so are more preferred.

Utility programs
It is a standard set of routines that assist the operation of the computer system by
performing some frequently required processes such as to sort and merge sets of data,
copy and keep track of computer jobs being run.

Control programs

These are designed to manage the general functions of the processor, memory and
terminal interface. The programs are arranged in a hierarchy at the top of which is a
kernel or executive program that controls the running of the other programs. In
microcomputers the supervisor is held in ROM while on larger computer systems it is
held on backing store. When the computer is switched on the supervisor is loaded into
main memory, the other programs are kept on disk and are transferred to main memory
when they are needed.

The kernel assists the following:

The job scheduler selects, initiates, terminates, queues and sequences the jobs that
demand the use of the processor and main memory.

The file manager has the responsibility of achieving the interleaving effect of
Multiprogramming.

The Input/Output manager has the responsibility of managing the interface with
terminals and backing store in response to the requirements of any applications
program being executed.

Communications Programs

These support network computer systems by allowing different types of hardware to be

linked and to communicate with each other. The programs may help to select the best
transmission medium for the message, coding and sending the data.

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Virtual Storage Operating System

This refers to a system for extending the capacity of main memory for running large
application or utility programs. The operating system separates programs into sections
some of which are put into backing store. The locations of these sections (addresses) and
the part of the program being executed are held in main memory; the sections are called
in and processed
When required and then returned to backing storage. The sections of the programs are
called pages and are said to page in from backing store and page out when being
replaced by other pages. The execution of virtual storage is therefore called paging.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 Applications are programs designed to help the user carry out specific tasks for
example to manipulate figures or write texts.

 This also consists of programs written to solve particular user-oriented problems. It

applies the power of the computer to give individuals, groups and organisations the
ability to solve problems and perform specific activities or tasks e.g. Accounts
receivable, accounts payable, automatic teller machines, inventory control, library
operations and control, invoicing etc

Categories of generic applications:

Word Processing

 A word processing package is designed to enable text to be typed and manipulated.

 It has many advantages over the type writer,
- the ability to edit parts of the text without rewriting the whole document
- allow for the production of multiple original copies from one softcopy.
- Ability to store typed documents in a computer
- Ability to change the layout of the document
 Popular Word-processing packages are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word,
WordPerfect, Quattro Word

Spreadsheets

- A spreadsheet package is used to perform calculations that have been entered onto
a grid.

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- Formulae are entered into the grid using the figures, if the figures change; the
results of the formulae are updated automatically.
- It is also possible to filter (select only the required data), sort or perform other forms
of data manipulations.
- It is possible to produce graphs, charts and other forms of comparison using the
entered figures from the spreadsheet.
- Popular examples of spreadsheet packages are: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro
Pro
]

Databases
- A database is an organised store of information, for example an address book, list of
employees, list of students, customers or items of assets.
- A database package is used to store records.
- Data can be sorted, filtered for separate viewing.
- Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done.
- Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV,
Data Ease.

Graphics
- These are applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters.
- They are often used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or
presentations on computer-projectors.
- Various types of charts are also produced
- Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard
Graphics, Corel Draw

Desktop Publishing

- Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design
capabilities.
- The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
- These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards
and other sophisticated documents.
- The application links up well with other applications as the user can import text and
graphics from the other applications.
- Examples of DTP packages are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and Frame
maker.

Suites
- Many applications are grouped together into suites which users can purchase as one
product containing, for example, Word-Processing, a Spreadsheet, Desktop
Publishing, Database application can be found within a Microsoft Office suite.

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The following is the criteria for selecting applications software:

-Accuracy - it must be free from errors

-Flexibility - must be able to adapt to changing environment.

-Compatibility - it must be compatible with available hardware

-Recency - it must be current

-Cost - it must have reasonable cost

-Originality - It must be original

-Support - consider continued support from the supplier.

-Ease of use - it must be user friendly.

-Performance - it must have efficiency in both response time and run time.

Sources of Applications Software

There are three sources of applications software;

In-house
Off-the shelf
From a contractor.
In-house Developed Software

This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team is
usually comprised of programmers and analysts. The team members should be high
calibre, highly trained and reliable

Advantages
 Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce an
accurate solution.
 The Software usually meets user requirements.
 Management are in total control of the development process
 More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
 Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation software
programs that are easily tailored to a unique problem or task.

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Disadvantages

 Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options
 In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project
 Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
 In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system

Off-the Shelf
This is software that can be purchased, leased, or rented from a software company that
develops programs and sells them to many computer users and organisations.
Applications such as financial accounting, business graphics and pay roll may be bought.

Advantages
 Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost
over a large number of customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer must
pay.
 Less risky - the software is existing, hence you can analyse the features and
performance of the package.
 The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.

 Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
 The package is well documented
 The packages require little maintenance
 There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.

Disadvantages

 The organisation might need to pay for the features that are not required and never
used.
 Tie package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
 The user has no direct control over the package,

Software from a Contractor

This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better known
as outsourcing especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.

Advantages
 Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the organisation
 Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
 Organization can get support from the contractor.

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Disadvantages

 There could be breach of confidentiality.

 Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no support.
 Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the problem
thus the solution might not be satisfactory.
 It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and operations
this makes the approach expensive.

DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
It allows the user to create software for various applications.

All software programs (systems and application) are written in coding schemes called
programming languages. The primary function of a programming language is to provide
instructions to the computer system so that it can perform a processing activity to
achieve an Objective or solve a problem. Program code is the set of instructions that
signal the CPU to perform circuit-switching operations,

Programming languages

There are categories of programming languages:

Low-level languages

High-level languages

Fourth generation languages

Low-level languages

1) First Generation languages - Machine language

In machine languages programmers wrote their instructions in binary code (0 and 1),
telling the CPU exactly which circuits to switch on (1) and off (0). Machine language is
considered a low-level language because it is very simple to the computer. Machine
language is the language of the CPU. It is the only language capable of directly
instructing the CPU.

Example of a machine code:

00100101 00000010 00001101
Means Add contents address location 1 to address location 2

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Because machine-language programming is extremely difficult, very few programs are
actually written in machine language.
The other disadvantage of machine languages is that they are machine specific.

All languages beyond the first generation are called symbolic languages- they use
symbols easily understood by humans, allowing the programmer to focus
on structuring a problem solution rather than on the complexities of coding specific
computer programs.

2) Second Generation - Assembly language

The commands are written in simple mnemonics (abbreviated form) instead of the
binary coding . For example A for ADD MV for MOVE. It is therefore easier to work with
assembly coding than machine coding. However, the instructions have to be translated
into machine code by a program called an assembler. Although it is a step above
machine language in terms of sophistication, assembly language is still considered a low-
level language,

Example : A,R 1.3 means add register 1 to register 2

3) Third Generation - High-level Languages (3GLs)

These use greater symbolic code. They are problem oriented. They specifically instruct
the computer on how to complete an operation. The instructions are English-like and
have to be translated into machine code by a compiler or interpreter.

An example in COBOL is:

DEDUCT TAX FROM SALARY GIVING NET SALARY

It is much easier to program using high-level language because the commands resemble
their meaning in everyday human communication and understanding.

Characteristics of high-level languages:

 Each statement in the language translates into several instructions in machine
language.
 The Language is English like and uses abbreviations and words used in everyday
communication.
 Each programming language has characteristics that make it appropriate for certain
types of problems or applications. For example COBOL (Common Business Oriented
Language) for Commercial problems, PASCAL for academic, FORTRAN (Formula
Translator) for Scientific problems and BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic

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Instruction Code) for small business systems SQL (Structured Query Language) for
databases.
 The language is relatively independent of a given computer hardware.

4) Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

 They are at a higher level than 3GLs. They demand few lines of code as compared to
3GLs.
 They are easy to learn and their statements are close to natural language. Being
easy they are used to develop simple systems.
 It emphasises what output results are desired more than how programming
statements are to be written.
 Many managers and executives with little or no training in computers and
programming are using fourth generation languages for programming.

Features of 4GLs

 Query and database abilities

 Code-generation abilities - these are abilities to automatically produce many of the
programming statements and instructions required to gain a specific output result.
 Graphics abilities

5) Fifth Generation Languages (5GLs)

 These are used to create programs for artificial intelligence and expert systems.
 They are sometimes called natural languages because they use English syntax.
 They allow programmers to communicate with the computer using
normal sentences.

DATA COMMUNICATION

Is the electronic collection and distribution of information between two points. Refers
to the means and methods whereby data is transferred between processing locations
through the use of communication systems. Once information has been converted into
binary, it is transmitted over the transmission media eg fibre optic cable has a series of
binary bits(1s &0s). Data communications hardware is used to transmit digital
information between terminals and computers or between computers and other
computers. These primary hardware components includes the modem, front-end
processors, the multiplexor and the router

Components
1. Computer to process information.

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2. Communication channels- the links by which data or voice communication are
transmitted between sending and receiving devices in a network.
3. Terminals or any I/O devices that send or receive data.
4. Communication processors such as modems, front-end processors, multiplexors
which provide support function for data transmission.
5. Telecommunication software which controls input and output activities and other
functions of the communications network

Communication systems are defined as systems for creating, delivering, and receiving
electronic messages. The communication system comprises of the following: - a device
to send the message
- The channel or communication medium
- A device to receive the message

Modes of Communication and Codes

There are various modes and codes of data transmission signals from the sending to the
receiving device.

Analogue transmission
Analogue signals are continuous sine waves that send a continuous 5-volt signal on a
channel but the signal will vary continuously between +5 to -5 volts. The number of
cycles per second is the frequency of the signal and is expressed in units called hertz
(Hz). The human voice forms oscillating patterns of changes in air pressure. The
vibrations act on the telephone microphone and are converted to electrical voltage
patterns that reflect the characteristics of the speech pattern. Analogue transmission is
used to transmit voice or data in analogue signals. It is used in telephone systems and
radio transmission.

Voltage
Analogue Signal

+5

-5 Time

Digital Transmission
This is the sending of data with digital symbols of 0 and 1 representing the switching on
(1) and switching off (0) pulses of electricity. Most computer systems use this to create

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bits that make up bytes. One cycle is made up of two pulses. The number of pulses per
second is called the baud rate.

Digital Signal

1 1 1
0 0 0

Time

Digital Transmission Versus Analogue Transmission

Digital transmission offers less errors and noise in transmission especially over long
distances. There is little data fatigue as the data being send does not lose power over
the transmission so much that the signal is weakened by the length of the transmission
media. Digital transmission is compatible with digital computers so there is no need to
convert the data messages from analogue to digital when computer systems are using
digital transmission lines. However, the setting up of digital transmission lines especially
over long distances is considerably expensive.

Data Transmission Modes

These are ways through which organisations can communicate via the channel or
transmission media.

Simplex transmission
Transmission takes place only in one direction. These are not suitable for long distance
transmission because there is need for acknowledgement or error messages. It is used
in the computer - printer communication. This is also used in radio and television
transmission.

Sender Receiver

Half Duplex

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Messages can be sent both ways but only one way at a time. The channel alternately
sends and receives data but these are not done at the same time. The same device is
used for both sending and receiving. This is used in two-way radio communication.

Sender Receiver

Full Duplex
This permits simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions. Sending and
receiving can be done at the same time using the same devices. This is the mode used in
modern telephone/cellular transmission.

Sender Receiver

Serial transmission
Binary signals representing the data are transmitted one after another in a serial
fashion. It is normally used except for very short connections between a peripheral and
a computer where parallel techniques are employed.

Parallel transmission
Data bits are transmitted as groups in parallel. Is quicker than sending them serially but
it is only practicable over short distances

Ways of Transmitting Data

a. Asynchronous Transmission - Each character is sent down the channel
separately that each transmission unit is one unit in length. The characters are
sent character by character at irregular intervals. The character is headed by a
start bit and ended by a stop bit. These bits tell the receiving device that a
character is coming and that the character has been sent. There may be a parity
bit to verify correctness of transmission. Even parity is used where the number
of bits in the character is even and an odd parity system for the character with
an odd number of bits.
This form is suitable conversational interactions and used in standard telephone
lines using low transmission rates.

b. Synchronous transmission - Prepared sets of characters are transmitted

together as blocks at fixed rates. The message is preceded by the parity bits to
verify what has been received.
The beginning and end bits represent small percentages of the total bits sent
thus reducing overhead costs of communication.

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Synchronous Transmission is faster and less expensive as given in that character
are blocked and sent down as one message allowing for the transmission of a
fuller message.

Protocols - There is need for there to be a way of signalling the start and end of
the message by the use of data transmission protocols. The use of the parity bits
is one method, use of "roger", "over" are protocols in two-way radio
communication.

DTE- Refers to all the external devices attached to a network. Egs computer terminals

Dumb terminal- the DTE maybe a dumb terminal, ie one which has no processing power
of its own, possibly no storage and is entirely dependent on a controlling computer. As
soon as each character is entered by the operator, its transmitted over the
communication link, to the controlling computer. This makes editing difficult and slow.
Having no processing power and no buffer memory, dumb terminals use a point-to-
point connection with the remote controlling computer hence data is transmitted
asynchronously.

Intelligent Terminal- this has memory and processing power, so an operator can use it to
store, edit and manipulate data independently of any other connected computer eg a
document can be retrieved from a remote computer, be edited and updated within the
intelligent computer. Having this ability, it can accumulate the keyed characters and
send them in blocks or streams.

Switching Alternatives

Circuit Switching
When a call is made the communication channel is opened and kept open until the
communication session is complete.
Message Switching
Each message is sent to the receiver if a route is available. The messages are sent in
blocks one at a time. The message may be stored for later transmission if the route is
not available, sometimes this is called store-and-forward transmission. The message is
delivered when the route becomes available or upon demand from the receiver.

Packet Switching
This involves sub-dividing the message into groups called packets. Each packet is then
sent to the destination separately via the fastest route. At the destination the packets
are put in sequential order and delivered to the receiver. Sometimes when there is no
route open, the packets are stored and then forwarded once the route is open, so these
are also store-and-forward systems. These fully put the network to better utilisation.

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Communication Channels Sources and Media

Channels also called communication links or lines are the means by which data is
transmitted between sending and receiving devices in a network.

a. Telephone Systems - telephone lines are used with online systems. The lines can
be divided into leased and dial service lines.
(i) Leased Lines - These are telephone lines that are dedicated to the
sole use by the user to support online systems within the
organisation. The telephone service provider (e.g Tel One) then
charges a flat monthly rate for the service. In calculating the rate the
length of the line may be considered.
(ii) Dial service - With this telephone line the user is charged each time
the line is used for online processing. When all the lines connecting
the system are busy a user has to wait and an appropriate message is
given by the system. The rate charged depends on the distance, time
of use (peak or off peak), time spent during transmission. This is
usually used for long distance communication between systems e.g.
the Internet
A leased line service provides for high-level online activities. It is much
cheaper to use and provides better quality transmission. The leased lines are
much more flexible than dial service lines. Users in the system have greater
access through the many lines provided by the common carrier.

The amount of data transmitted depends on the capabilities of the

communication channel. The capabilities may be classified as bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the frequency range of the channel, representing the maximum
transmission rate of the channel. The bandwidth can be measured in bits per
second (bps)
A narrow band - the channel offers the lowest transfer rate and supports
transmission through telegraph lines.
Voice band - this is a low-speed analogue (offering a rate between 300 and
9600 bps)
Wideband - these offer the highest transfer rates with data communication
through coaxial cables.

b. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) - it is an international effort to

replace the analogue technology with digital technology through a single set of
standard interfaces.
c. Microwave Satellite Transmission - These transmissions are sent through the
air. The transmission uses a line of light that must be unobscured. Usually these
transmissions are from space satellites placed in stationary orbit and earth
satellites and are communicated from and to satellite dishes.

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Satellite

Destination
Source

Earth

This form of transmission can transmit large amounts of data over wider areas.
This is in much use in wide area television broadcasting. Although transmission is
of high quality, setting up the system is very expensive.
d. Radio Transmission - This form of transmission uses radio waves, transportation
and taxi companies for easier communication use it. The police and army to
communicate also use this.
e. Cellular Transmission - The local area under the transmission is divided into
cells. As the cellular transmission user moves from one cell to the other the
connection is passed from one cell to the other. The signals from individual cells
are integrated into one regular telephone system.
f. Physical Cables - Transmission uses physical cables which are connected to the
communication points. There are three types of these cables:
(i) Twisted-Pair Wire cable - this consists of a pair of twisted copper wires.
The wires are insulated and twisted to avoid mixing of signals from or
into each other. There are shielded wires (with a special conducting
wire) and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) that has no insulation. It is
the type used in home telephone connections. The twisted pair wire
cable is inexpensive. However, it does not allow high rates of data
transfer, and is prone to interference and too bulky.
(ii) Coaxial cable - Consists of a sturdy copper or aluminium wire wrapped
with spacers to insulate and protect it. The insulation minimizes the
interference and distortion of the signals the cable carries. Groups of
coaxial cables may be bundled together in a big cable for ease of
installation. They allow high speed data transmission
(iii) Fibre optic cable - This is made up of a glass or plastic core surrounded by
a cladding material (paper, polyethylene, twine or other sheathing).
They use light which is turned on and off rapidly creating the on off
bit. The sheathing of the cable prevents loss of reflection.
Advantages
1. High transmission capacities
2. Smaller cable size and lighter weight
3. Very little cross talk and spying

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4. Little interference
5. Repeaters (to boast strength of the signal) are not required

These are however quite expensive to purchase and set up.

COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEMS

A network is a number of computers connected through some channel so that they may
share some of the resources and allow access into them by users from other points.
Computers are networked for various reasons depending on the nature of the
organization, the most of these being the need to share limited resources and to
communicate

Advantages of networking
a. Resources can be shared e.g. printers, computer files and programmes.
b. More even distribution of processing and other work by the computers and
users.
c. More economic and fuller use of computers.
d. Allow for the provision of local facilities without loss of central control.
e. Mutual support and a spirit of cooperation exist.

Disadvantages of networking.
a. There could be congestion at the shared resources.
b. Control of information and confidentiality may be lost.
c. The costs of the system may be considerable.
d. Viruses and other forms of corruption to programmes spread faster

There are basically two types of networks ie LAN and WAN

Wide Area Networks (WAN) These are networks that are spread over large
geographical areas.It is connected through public networks such as the telephone
system or satellites. It is a long distant network of interconnected computers on
separate sites, cities or even different countries.

Purposes of Implementation of WAN

-To get data from its source.
-Improve on the productivity of the system by improving the speed of processing
- Allow for instant feedback and expansion of the system.

WAN hardware

Hosts - This provides users with processing software and access. The host is usually a
mainframe computer with microcomputers connected to it.

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Front end Processors (FEP) & Back End Processors (BEP) - These are minicomputers
that are placed in front of (FEP) or at the back (BEP) of the main system CPU. These
assist the main system CPU with accepting input perform the operations on it before
forwarding it to the mainframe CPU for further processing or after the main system CPU
to assist with the output activities. They generally manage communications. The main
system CPU concentrates on process work without having to handle input and output
activities.

Modems - This is short for Modulate Demodulate. Telephone lines that are common link
media between computers use the analogue signal whereas computers use digital
signals. So there is need to convert the signals. From the sending computer, the digital
signal should be modulated to analogue signal for transmission over the telephone link.
At the receiving end the analogue signal has to be demodulated (converted back) into
the digital signal.

Modulation can be done using a number of methods. Amplitude modulation (AM)

where the amplitude is modified to represent binary digits 0 and 1. Frequency
Modulation (FM) adjusts frequency to represent the bits 0 and 1. The Phase Shift
Modulation adjusts a fixed amount so that 0 and 1 can correspond to different phase
shifts.

Terminals - These are the microcomputers connected to the system on which the users
can work to sent data or access information. Terminals may be dump or intelligent.
Dump terminals have limited memory and intelligence while intelligent terminals have
processing and memory capabilities that they can process data themselves.

Multiplexor -it is a device that can subdivide one big channel so that many people can
use it at the same time. There are two types of multiplexors: time division and
frequency division.
Time Division Multiplexors (TDM) - It slices multiple incoming signals into small
time intervals that are then transmitted over a channel and then split by another
TDM at the receiving end.

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Time Slots Time

Frequency Division Multiplexor (FDM) - incoming signals on different frequency ranges
are sent across a transmission medium at the same time. At the receiving end another
FDM splits the frequencies into multiple signals again.

HOST

Multiplexor Multiplexor

Terminal controllers/Concentrators- are used to connect many terminals to a single

line, they do not communicate directly with the FEP.

Protocol Converters - Because of the diversity of technology in communication, WANs

are using various devices, channels, modes and codes. To allow for communication
between and among all these protocol converters are used to translate different signals
from one system to another. Typical protocol converters include HTTP (Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol) used on Internet communications, TCP/IP.

WAN Software
In order for the WAN hardware to operate there should appropriate software which
should include telecommunications access programmes that handle messages between
the host's memory and the remote devices, this programme could be in the FEP. There
is also the network control programme that has the work of running the network off the
host by checking if terminals have messages to send, do editing of incoming messages.

WAN Topology

Modem Modem

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Host
Terminals
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LOCAL AREA NETWORKS-LAN

It is an interconnected group of minicomputers or other terminals within a small

geographical area. The area could be a room, a number of offices or a building. These
are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates but the distances are limited and
there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN

LAN Hardware and Software

Network Workstations - these are usually microcomputers from where a user can work
to enter or receive data from the network. These could be dump terminals or diskless
workstations.

File Servers - These are computer systems attached to a network that control access to
and other wise manage hard disks to allow the workstations to share disk space,
programmes and data and to control the network.

Print Servers - these are computers that have the duty of managing the printer
resources, that is allocating print time, and carrying out other print routines.

Communication Servers - these manage communication devices in the network

(modems, multiplexors). A microcomputer or even the file server could do this job
provided that it is not too busy with its own functions.

Cabling - these connect the different computer systems and devices in the network.
Sometimes LANs use radio waves and thus are wireless.

Network interface Cards- these provide the necessary translation of signals between
the devices in the network. They are sometimes called adapters.

The Network operating System - These are programmes that manage the operations of
the network allowing the user to install the network, the application software, analyse
and solve network problems, manage the sending, routing and delivery of messages and
do other routine and housekeeping duties for the network.

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LAN Topologies

Topologies are ways in which a network can be structured or arranged depending on the
resources, the needs and the structure of the given organisation.

1. Star Topology – All computers are connected to the hub or central computer.
The hub uses a method called polling when computers are communicating.
Polling is whereby the central computer asks each network computer if it has a
message to send. Communication is in both directions but passes through the
hub
Advantages
a. It is easy to trouble shoot
b. It is economic and offers intensive use of the terminals
c. Requires a single intelligent computer, terminals could be dump there by
saving on the cost of the network.
d. Each terminal has direct and quicker access to the host
e. If one cable fails, this doesn’t disrupt the whole network
f. There is network security and control is easy to implement through the
central computer.

Disadvantages
a. It is prone to failure - failure of the node mean loss and breakdown to the
whole system.
b. The cabling may be costly ie it uses too many cables so its expensive to set up
c. Viruses can be transmitted easily within the network

Terminal

Host

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All the computer are connected to a linear transmission medium called a bus and there
are terminators at each end of the bus. When a computer wants to send a message, it
first checks to see if the bus is not busy then sends. If the bus is busy, it waits for a
random time and then rechecks. This method is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection(CSMA/CD). Terminators are required in order to catch stray
signals and prevent them from interfering with other signals on the bus

Advantages
a. Costs of setting up and maintaining the network are low.
b. Each terminal can communicate directly with any other on the network.

Disadvantages
a. Risk of network malfunction ie it can be slow if there is a large number of users
b. Trouble shooting is more difficult.
c. There is the risk of data collision.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)

Is used on broadcast systems such as the bus network. Each device is theoretically free
to transmit data to any other device at any time. Before attempting to transmit a
device’s network card polls the network path to ensure that the destination device is
free to receive data and that the communication channel is free. A device wishing to
transmit must wait until both conditions exist

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CSMA/CD- because of the possibility of collision through simultaneous transmission, a
collision detection mechanism is used. When collision occurs, the devices involved cease
transmission and try again some time later. In order to avoid the same collision each
device involved is made to wait a different time.

CSMA/CA-this strategy attempts to improve on that of CSMA/CD which allows a device

to place a packet onto the network as soon as its network card detect it as being free. It
seeks to remedy the problem of collision by requiring a device’s network to test the
path twice, once to see if the path is free and second time after alerting the device that
it may use the network, but before the packet is placed onto the network

3. Ring Topology
It is made up of a series of nodes connected to each other to form a closed loop. Each
loop can accept data transmitted to it from an immediate neighbour and forward data
not addressed to it to the next neighbour. Messages are transmitted in packets or
frames. Each node has an address and packet is delivered to the node bearing the
address required. Communication in a ring occurs by a method called token passing. A
ring network would have one token which has the ability to transmit data. Each
computer is given the chance to grab the token and receive or send a message. When a
token has a message, each computer checks to see if the token is addressed to it so that
it can grab it, otherwise it passes it on along the ring

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Advantages
a. It is easy to install
b. There is less risk of packet collision
c. More accurate and reliable

Disadvantages
a. There is poor response time
b. There is risk of data interception so there should be data encryption.
c. Unwanted data may continue to circulate the network, thus reducing traffic
carrying capacity of the network.
d. It is difficult to implement central network security since there is no controlling
computer
e. If the cable develops a problem, the whole network is disrupted and is difficult to
troubleshoot

4. Mesh Topology
This topology combines the ring and the star topologies. Bi-directional links are
established.

This offers better communication and reduces the risk of data collision because of the
existence of alternative routes. The network has quick response time and is very
accurate. However, the costs of the cabling are quite considerable.

5. Hierarchical (Tree) Topology

The nodes are connected to form a hierarchy. Messages are passed along the branches
until they reach their destinations. These networks do not need a centralised computer
that controls communications. These are also very easy to troubleshoot and repair
because the branches can be separated and serviced separately.

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6. Mixed Topologies

Various topologies are combined into one network.

LAN concerns for the Manager

Costs - of connection - cables and software

Compatibility of the hardware and software
Appointment of a network manager where necessary.

Connecting and extending LANS

Although there are limitations to the range of a LAN and the number of de vices
attached imposed by the performance ability of the network transmission medium,
networks can be connected to one another and extended.

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Repeater – allow effective length of an Ethernet segment to be increased. The
maximum length of an Ethernet segment is restricted because of signal loss and
distortion which occurs as a data packet travels along the cable. A repeater thus re-
strengthens (re-amplifies)the signal and resets its timing so that the effective length of
the segment cab be increased. It is also used to enable a signal to travel to another
segment of a network. It can normally connect any type of cable medium eg twisted pair
or optical fibre

Bridge – is used to connect two LANS of the same type. This is known as local inter-
networking. Packets crossing such a link are forwarded by the bridge device. They can
also divide large networks into smaller segments

Peer-to-Peer network
Every workstation on a PP network has a similar status in the hierarchy, each having its
own local storage devices for programs and data. One node on the network may act as a
file server another as a printer server but both of these nodes are also network nodes
which are capable of being used as client work stations

Advantages
-each station on a PP network has a similar status in the hierarchy, each having its own
local storage devices.
-cheaper than client server, no need for file server software

Disadvantages
-no central file storage
-users must backup their own data
-it is less secure than client server

Client-Server Network
Whereby client workstations make use of resources available on one or more servers

Advantages
-increased security over PP. Each user must log in to server
-different users can be given different levels of access to data
-resources are controlled through the server
-workgroup computing-many users can work on the same document simultaneously
-backup is done centrally

Disadvantages
-if file server is down, then users can not access data
-is more expensive than peer since it is necessary to buy a server software

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Hub –works in the same manner as a repeater except that a hub has multiple parts
allowing more than one device to share the same wire. It may be thought of as a multi-
port repeater.

Switch –divides a network into separate segments, one segment for each connected
machine
Router –is a device which links two or more networks. The function of the router is to
look at the destination addresses of the packets of data passing through it and decide
which route each packet should take

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer systems. It can also be referred to as

Group of two or more networks that are:

-interconnected physically with each other and

-capable of communicating and sharing data
-able to act together as a single network

It either uses the TCP/IP protocol or interacts with TCP/IP networks via
gateways(interpreters). The Internet covers the globe and includes large, international
networks as well as many smaller, local area networks.
It offers access to data, graphics, sound, software, people and a variety of services and
tools for communication and data exchange. It is the fastest and cheapest means to get
and compile information.

There are many organizations that offer internet services. These are called Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) and they usually charge a fee for the connection.

Internet access
You can connect to the internet in one of the 2 basic ways ie dialing into an Internet
Service Provider(ISP) or with a direct connection to an ISP. The difference is mainly in
the speed and cost

Dial-up Connection
It uses the modem to convert computer bits and bytes into modulated (tonal) signals
that the phone lines can transmit. These signals are received by a modem at your ISP
and demodulated into bits and bytes for their computer. Modem is short for modulator-
demodulator. To establish a conventional dial-up connection to the Internet , you will
need the following

-an account with an Internet service provider

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-a telephone or mobile phone connection. The phone line is the transmission media
which links the computer/mobile phone to the Internet Service Provider
-a computer with serial port (for external modems) or an expansion slot (for internal
modems) or a mobile phone that has internet settings
-a modem (internal/external) in the case of using a desktop or a laptop. The modem
converts computer’s electronic digital data into analog signals that can be transported
through a phone line when information is being sent and vice versa when receiving.
-a browser software eg Internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera

Direct connection
Is when you have a fixed cable or a dedicated phone line to the ISP. It will also include all
the other requirements except that it does not use a modem

Wireless connection differs from the two in that it does not use a phone line.

For large organizations, its ideal that they network their computers. One would need a
server-based network to effect network security and to use one connection as a
gateway to the Internet.

*Discuss the need of gateways, routers, hubs and switches in networking an

organization like Great Zimbabwe University.
*Describe the role of Internet and its uses to the key stakeholders of a university like
Great Zimbabwe

Internet Protocols
The most commonly used protocols are:

1.Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)- is actually a collection of

protocols or rules that govern the way data travels from one point to the other across
networks. It is made up of two major components ie TCP and IP.
IP does the following:
-envelops and addresses the data
-enables the network to read the envelope or packet and forward the data to its
destination
-defines how much data can fit in a single envelope or packet

TCP does the following:

-breaks the data up into packets that the network can handle efficiently
-verifies whether all the packets have arrived at the destination
-reassembles the data

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2.File Transfer Protocol- is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite and it enables files to be
transferred between two points. It works on the client-server principle where a client
program enables a user to interact with the server in order to access information and
services on the server.

3.Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)- governs the transfer of hypertext between two or

more computers. Hypertext is text that is specially coded using a standard system called
Hypertext Markup Language(HTML). This allows connection between computers and
makes the requests. An HTTP request identifies the resource that a client is interested in
and tells the server what action to take on the resource eg http://www.gzu.co.zw

4.Telnet- enables one computer to connect to another a process known as remote login.
A user’s computer which initiates the connection is referred to as the local computer
and the machine being connected to, which accepts the connection is referred to as the
remote. The remote computer can be physically located in the next room, next town or
in another country

Considerations on bandwidth and broadband

(a) Bandwidth – this is also known as the data transfer rate and refers to the total
amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given period
of time. Bandwidth is normally measured in bits per second, most common
reference being kilobits per second (Kpbs) or megabits per second (Mbps).
Bandwidth can be high or low. In a high bandwidth it is possible to send
multimedia files like videos, sound files while in a low bandwidth only text can be
transmitted. If a big file like a video file were to be sent on a low bandwidth
connection, the connection slows down considerably and it takes a long time to
complete the transmission.
Bandwidth is two way – there is the download speed and the upload speed. To
download is obtain data from the internet and to upload is to send data onto the
internet for example when an e-mail is sent or when a photograph is posted on a
social network. The download and upload speeds of a connection are different. A
connection will normally allow a higher download speed for example a
connection with a specification such as 512 kbps/128 kbps has a maximum
capacity to download at a speed of 512 kilobits per second and upload at a
maximum speed of 128 kilobits per second. It should be noted that these are
maximum speeds and depending on other factors, downloading and uploading
may be at speeds lower than the maximum, we do not all drive at the maximum
speeds given on our cars!
(b) Broadband – it refers to any high speed, high bandwidth connection to the
internet. Such connections can allow for video calls, online broadcasting and
other transmissions requiring the transmission of huge streams of data.

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Broadband comes with a cost. The higher the broadband the higher the cost
involved. Most people nowadays connect to the internet using mobile devices
and usually wonder how their airtime runs out when they download or upload a
huge file. Bigger files have more megabytes and each megabyte is a cost.

i. Factors to consider when considering broadband

 Cost – people usually prefer cheaper options, but these may come with severe
restrictions especially on how much one can download.
 Speed – in most cases the speed is linked to the cost of the connection.
 Download limits (caps) – many data connections come with the maximum
amount of data that can be downloaded so they place a “cap” on the amount. In
some cases caps are for a given period like 1Gb per month and if one should
need more then she/he will have to pay more for the extra megabytes.
 Mobility – some broadband connections are fixed whilst others are mobile, so if
mobility is desired a wireless broadband like 3G (cellular based internet
connection) will be preferred.
 Coverage or availability – one can choose from what is available. Some
connections are not available in some areas.

6.5 Places where people connect to the internet

 Cyber cafés – these are also called internet cafes where there are computers
connected to the internet. People pay for time to use the computers. Many
cyber cafes these days also offer wireless connections for people with laptops
and other mobile devices.
 Hot spots – this refers to a wireless network that has been set up for internet
connections for mobile computers and other devices. People with the devices
enabled to receive wireless signals can connect to the internet after paying the
required amount or having their devices specifically configured to access the
network. Hot spots are getting popular with many organisations especially
hotels, restaurants, schools, colleges and universities.
 3G connections – people can use a 3G enabled phone or computer to connect to
the internet from anywhere where there is cellphone transmission. Nowadays it
is possible to pair devices and the devices can all access the internet from one
connection, for example, one can pair a cellphone with a laptop and browse the
internet from the laptop for better interface and flexibility.
 At home – some homes with telephone or other forms of connections can
provide internet access.
 At work – most business organisations have fast, permanent connections and
their workers and other authorised people can access internet from there.

6.6 The URL

This is pronounced “el”. It is the unique resource locator. The URL is also called
the internet address and is used to identify a website. An URL has four major

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components; the part of the internet where the site is connected, the username,
type of organisation and the geographical domain of the site. Each component is
separated from the others by a dot. Let us look at the following address.

www.gzu.ac.zw

www . gzu . ac . zw

geographical location

type of organisation

name of site/organisation

world wide web

 www (world-wide web) is part of the internet which is made up of many

computers connected through various media that are able to share and
exchange information through given protocols like the hypertext transfer
protocols (http or https). It is therefore common to see the fuller address as
http//www.gzu.ac.zw.
 Site name - gzu – this is site name and in most cases refers to the name of the
organisation. The United Nations will have www.un... the Red Cross Society will
also have www.redcross....
 type of organisation - ac - there are many types of organisations and the most
common ones are:
ac – academic organisations like universities and colleges
co – companies (or profit organisations)
org – nonprofit organisations
net – nonprofit organisations and networks
gov – government departments
com – commercial organisation (usually refers to the US domain).
 Geographical area – zw – this refers to the country where the site is located.
Each country has an extension (abbreviation) and a few examples are;
zw – Zimbabwe
za – South Africa (in Afrikaans Zuid Africa so za)
zn - Zambia
ru – Russia
uk – United Kingdom
The United States does not have a country extension like other countries and the
.com typically is US although nowadays it can refer to organisations that are not
physically in the US. Most .org, .net sites also do not have country extensions.

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6.7 Electronic Mail

It is commonly referred to as the e-mail. Every user of the e-mail has a unique
address. E-mail addresses have an @, for example, john@yahoo.com . One can
send and receive messages the same way an ordinary letter is sent and received.
E-mail messages are sent from user to user on a computer network with
message being stored in the recipient’s mailbox or inbox. The next time the user
logs on, he is told that there are new messages, these messages can be read,
printed or replied. On average 144 billion e-mail messages are exchanged in one
day.
E-mail allows for the sending of attachments. These are files that contain greater
detail and are based on a particular application package like Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel. One can even send a CV, an assignment or other document
using e-mail.
E-mail makes use of an existing internet connection and software. However,
there is a misconception in the minds of many students that e-mail and internet
are one and the same thing. Internet provides many facilities and the e-mail is
only one of them.

Elements in the e-mail message

To – this is the section in which the sender writes the e-mail address of the
person who is to receive the e-mail. It is possible to have many recipients of the
same massage where the addresses are separated by the commas. For some
frequent or stored contacts only the stored name may be shown and the usual
@ may not be shown.
Cc – A message can be copied to some other recipients, A message for one
recipient may be sent to another person for their information the same we send
copies to our supervisors on communications with other people. The cc
recipients will be able to see who the other cc recipients are since these will be
displayed.
Bcc – the message is copied to another recipient in the same way as the cc but
the other Bccs and ccs do not see that the message was copied to these, the Bcc
recipients are not displayed to other people receiving the message.
Forward – this option redirects the original message to another person, the
original sender may be maintained together with the original subject line except
that a Fwd is prefixed to it.

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Reply – this option allows for reply to the message and eliminates having to type
the address of the recipient, the original message is retained and appears at the
end of the new message in the reply. The original subject is retained with a Re;
prefixed to it.
Message Body – this is the section in which the sender writes the message and
for most e-mails this may be compulsory and where optional a message warns
the sender that a blank message is about to be sent.
Inbox, Spam and Trash and other folders – the inbox contains all messages
received usually in date order beginning with the latest and all unread messages
are highlighted until they have been opened. A spam folder contains all
messages that have been received and are suspected to be of a spam nature by
the e-mailing programme. It is advisable to ignore or empty the spam folder but
it is equally advisable to be sure and regularly check for genuine e-mails that
could be mistakenly directed to the spam folder. Trash folder contains all the e-
mails deleted from the inbox (those deleted from the spam folder may not be
sent to the trash folder). Some e-mail systems may allow for the creation of
personalized folders into which some e-mails may be saved.
Contacts – one can create and save contacts on the e-mail and would not need
to type the e-mail addresses so would simply select the desired recipients from a
list of contacts. For convenience, groups of contacts may be created for speedy
insertion of a particular group of recipients.

6.8 Intranet vs Extranet

It is the network of computers usually within a company that uses e-mail and
browser software but is not part of the internet. Employees can use the Intranet
to access information related to the company such as training, social activities,
job opportunities and product information. It enables employees to share
information.

6.9 Virtual Private network (VPN)

This is a private network that uses the internet to allow computers to connect as
though they were connected to a LAN. The VPN is only accessible by the
organisation and any other users cannot access them because the data is
encrypted. A VPN is cheaper than setting up a WAN for the organisation. Large
organisations and other organisations with extensive branch networks like banks
and supermarket chains usually use VPN.

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6.11 Social Networking

A social network is a social structure made up of a set of actors (such as
individuals or organizations) and the ties between these actors. A social
networking website is an online community that allows members to keep track
of their friends and share photos, videos, music, stories and ideas with other
registered members. Social networking sites include Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn,
Whatsup. More and more people are registering on these social network sites
sharing more information than ever before.

(a) Benefits of social networking

 Helps people to communicate with others who have similar interests or
goals.
 Social networking can be a good way. You can connect with new people
and "meet" them.
 You can easily make friends, while keeping up with the old ones.
 Social networking sites can also keep you updated on what's going on on
your campus, or in your town.
 You can advertise for different groups.
 Helps to "create a positive self-image." in the way one creates his or her
profile.

(b) Dangers of social networking

 Inappropriate language, nudity, alcohol use, sexually provocative images,
etc.
 Predators use it to gather information
 No real method of age verification
 Some social networking services allow people to view profiles without
logging on.
 Websites can hide themselves and make themselves look like your
favorite social network
 Almost anyone can see what you are doing on your social networking
site. Some people are being turned down by employers for jobs,
internships and even interviews because of the information employers
are finding out about them on their social networking accounts. This is
why people need to be careful about their activities on the social sites.

6.12 The Intrusive Internet

The internet is wide open and access is becoming more and more easier as more
and more of people’s data and information is being carried around on the networks
and devices. The line between private information and public information is

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becoming thinner and nowadays one of the biggest fears people have about internet
is in the way it is intruding into personal information and personal lives of people.

(a) Snooping on one’s e-mail – someone else may look into another person’s e-mails
especially those sent and received at work. At some workplaces workers are
even warned that their e-mails may be opened by the employer.
(b) Spam – this is the equivalent of junk mail. It comprises of unwanted or
unsolicited messages usually of an advertising nature. In 2010, 262 billion spam
messages were sent daily, using up enough electricity enough to power 4 million
homes for a year (Williams & Sawyer, 2011). This shows that spam is a real
problem and every e-mail user should be aware of it. To reduce spam some
users create separate e-mail accounts for different purposes, e-mail accounts for
shopping are more susceptible to spamming than e-mail accounts used for other
purposes.
(c) Spoofing, Phishing and Pharming and sniffing
Spoofing is the forgery of an e-mail sender name so that the message appears to
have originated from someone or somewhere other than the actual source.
Spoofing is a way of inducing recipients into opening and perhaps responding to
the solicitations of spammers. Sometimes this is referred to as hoaxing in which
the spammer makes a lie in order to elicit certain confidential information.
Messages such as “You have won …” are quite common. In most cases huge
amounts are involved and the unsuspecting victim may be lured by some
seemingly genuine pieces of information like phone numbers. The provided
numbers can be answered and the spammers may confirm the win and advise
that the person deposit a processing fee into a bank account before payment can
be processed. In other cases the victim may be requested to provide private
information such as bank details. One of the biggest ways to identify hoax e-
mails is in wrong spellings and vague subject lines. One should also ask himself
“what have I done to win so much money?”
Phishing (pronounced fishing) is the sending of a forged e-mail that directs
recipients to a replica of an existing web page, both of which pretend to belong
to a legitimate company. The purpose of phishing is to entice people to share
their personal, financial or password data information.
Pharming involves the implanting of malicious software on a victim’s computer
that redirect the user to an impostor web page even when the correct address
has been entered. One way of staying safe is to make sure that one goes to
special websites that begin with https rather than the standard http sites that do
not have encryption to protect data on transfer.
(d) Cookies – these are little text files such as those with one’s log-in name,
password and preferences left on the computer hard disk by some web sites
visited. The web sites retrieve the data each time they are visited, a web site that
welcomes a user by name uses cookies. Cookies are not necessarily dangerous,
they are not programmes and they cannot transmit computer viruses. However,

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some organisations can sell the information collected through cookies to
marketers and possible spammers. Sometimes unsatisfactory cookies might
allow access to personal information for secondary use. This can lead to
spyware.
(e) Spyware – this is deceptive software that installs itself on a computer via a web
that allows outsiders to gather confidential information without the user’s
knowledge. The spyware is intended to spy on the user by picking keystrokes,
passwords, e-mail address, credit card numbers, history of websites visited.
There are three major types of spyware; adware, browser hijackers and key
loggers.
Types of spyware
(i) Adware – is a kind of spyware that tracks web surfing or online buying so
that marketers can send you targeted and unsolicited pop-up and other
advertisements. This is also known as pop-up generators because they
force advertisement pop-ups onto the user’s screen. Legitimate business
entities may use pop-up generators but others with malicious intent may
also make use of these like purveyors of pornography and gambling.
(ii) Browser hijackers and search hijackers – this is a kind of spyware that
changes settings in your browser without the knowledge of the user.
Spyware can reset genuine and legitimate pages or links to lead to
suspect sites like those for pornography or gambling. Search hijackers
change settings of a user’s search engine to lead to another site.
(iii) Key loggers – this is a type of spyware that records each character typed
and transmit the information to someone else on the web making it
possible for strangers to learn users’ password and other private
information.

Reducing the risk of spyware

 Avoid free or illegal downloads in the form of songs, movies, TV
shows.
 Do not just “Agree” to term on web pages without first reading
the terms and provided information.
 Install anti-spyware software.
 Sometimes checking for security recommendations and ratings of
some sites on some browser may be of help, also check for the
crossed out eye sign to show that you are not being spied on.
 So always be on the lookout, carefully minding that someone
could be watching what you are doing.
(f) Pornographic exploitation – there is real danger on the internet on pornographic
exploitation even of adults although this looks severe for the younger
generations. Pornographic material is much more easily accessible on the
internet because of the supposed privacy on the internet. Pornographic
addiction is becoming common. Some of these sites may require some

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information before access thereby enticing people into giving their private
information.

6.13 Staying safe on the information technology superhighway

With so much traffic as information is transported between points, risks also

come up and there should be ways of staying safe.
(a) Antivirus software – this is a type of a virus fighting software which scans the
computer’s hard disk and other designatded staorage devices or main
memory to detect viruses and often to destroy them. Anti-vrus software
scans for “signatures” that are in the visuses which identify them and also
look for suspicious virus like behaviour such as attempts to erase or change
ares of the hard disk. It is not enough to have an anti-virus installed, one
needs to update the anti-virus since new viruses come up everyday an
outdated anti-virus may not be able to deal with new viruses. It is also
advisable to regularly scan the computer and all removable storage devices.
(b) Firewalls – a firewall is a hardware and/or software that protects a computer
or a network from intruders. Firewals are mostly used to prevent
unauthorised internet users from accessing private networks. Connections
thaht are always on are more susceptible to unathourised intrusion.
Windows 7 operating system has an in-built firewall. For one computer a
software firewall will suffice in which the user activates the firewall. For more
than one computer a hardware firewall may be necessary such as a router.
(c) Passwords - a password is a special code, word or set of symbols required to
access a computer or a file on a computer. Passwords are one of the
commonest ways of restricting access to computers, computer programmes
and to files or preventing some unauthorised actions and operatins.
Passwords, like personal identification numbers (PINs) should be kept safely
an should not be easy to guess. Quite often people would use their names,
names of close relatives, date of births, place of birth and such other obvious
codes which criminals may easily guess. On 11 September 2001, the terrorist
attack on the World Trdae center killed 700 of the 1 000 workers of Cantor
Fitzgerald firm. Most of these had special and exclusive access to some
computers, programmes and files. The problem was to guess the passwords,
the surviving employees used names of close relatives, places they had
visited, interests of the deceased employees and they were able to guess
right in most cases. This story tells us that protecting yourself by passwords
alone may not be adequate since these can be guessed if too simple,
forgotten if too complicated or simply stolen.
The don’ts in passwords
Do not use obvious words
Do not use your name as a password
Do not use the names of your close relatives

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Do not use the same password on all your computers, programmes or files.
Do not use your date of birth or that of any of your relatives

The do’s in passwords

Mix letters, numbers, symbols, punctuation marks.
Use a mixture of upper and lower case
Develop a secret way of keying in common and easy passwords like moving a
key to the left or to the right in an otherwise common password. Like if the
intended password is angel, moving one key to the right gives smhr;which is
less obvious than angel itself.
Change passwords regularly
Use at least eight characters in a password

Such a password as 4fmu2me! looks very strong.

(d) Biometric authentification – biomentrics is a science of measuring an

individual’s body characteristcs. There are biometric devices that
authenticate a person’s identity by comparing his or her biological
chacteristics with digital code stored in a computer system.
The devices that are commonly used are hand geometry systems, finger print
scanners, iris recognition systems, face recognition systems and voice
recognition systems. Since no two people have the same biomentric
characteristics this becomes a safer means to access the computer, network,
programme or file be it online or offline.
(e) Encryption – this is a process of altering readable data into an ureadable
form to prevent unathourised access. Encryption uses powerful
mathematical concepts to create coded messages that are difficult or
impossible to break. The intended recipient of the message may use a key to
decrypt the message and be able to read it. This then gives safety to data as
it travels between two points as it becomes useless to any unathourised
person.

Extranet
Newsgroups
World wide web (WWW)

DATA PROCESSING

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It is the process of collecting data and converting it into information. It may be manual
(where only human effort is used), semi-manual where human effort is aided by an
electronic device or mechanical/electronic, where computers replace human effort.

Types of Data Processing

1. Centralised data processing

This is where data is sent to and processed at a central place.
Advantages of centralised data processing
a. All required information can be got from one place
b. Little distortion of information
c. Easy to manage and control
d. Cheaper to implement
e. Easier to enforce standards
f. Is not complicated

Disadvantages
a. The whole system is disturbed when the computer is down.
b. Users of the system have little control over the data even their own.
c. Loss of data by the processing computer may mean loss of data at other points.
d. Needs specialists to set up and maintain the system and its environment.
e. Processing of data may be slow due to congestion at the central computer.

2. Distributed processing
Data is processed at different points in the organisation. Branch or department may
have a microcomputer or minicomputer that processes the information. The
minicomputer in the branch then sends to a host computer after processing.

HOST COMPUTER

1 2 3 4 5 6

Advantages
a. Data lost at any point may be recovered from the host
b. Faster processing of data
c. Processing may occur even if the host computer is down
d. User have some control over their data
e. Problem can be solved at the different points

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Disadvantages
a. The system needs expensive equipment and has high maintenance costs.
b. Management and control difficult
c. There is dada duplication at the different points
d. No uniformity of data
e. There is no overall control time

3. Batch processing
A central computer system normally processes all transactions against a central data
base and produces reports at intervals. In batch processing transactions are
accumulated over a period of time and processed periodically. A batch system handles
the inputing, processing, job queuing and transmission of the data from the remote sites
with little or no user intervention. Batch processing involves.
a. Data gathering from source documents at the remote site through the remote
job entry (RJE)
b. recording the transaction data onto some medium e.g. magnetic tape or disk.
c. Sorting the transactions into transaction files
d. Processing of the data
e. Updating the master file.

Advantages
a. It is economical when large amounts of data are being processed
b. Suitable where reports and information is needed periodically.
c. Reduced risk of error due to the time involved in validation and verification.
Disadvantages
a. Master files are often out of date
b. Immediate updated responses cannot be made.
c. Unsuitable where decisions and follow up transactions depend on the results of
earlier transactions e.g. in bank withdrawals and deposits.
d. Once the system fails all output is delayed.

4. On-line Processing
It is the input of transactions while the input device is connected directly to the main
CPU of the system. There is no necessity of a batch.

Advantages
a. Items can be input much easier and quicker.
b. Many errors are dealt with by the operator at entry
c. Time is saved because a batch does not have to be produced first.
d. User can recognise anomalies in the data being entered

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Disadvantages
a. The system may be more expensive than batch processing.
b. Sometimes accuracy of data depends on the operator who might fail to detect or
prevent some errors.
c. Sometimes source document are not used e.g. in the case of telephone orders.

5. On line Real time processing

It is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data as to be able to feedback the
result of that input to the source of that data. There is no delay between the input of a
transaction and the updating of the master files for the transaction. The only delay is for
the necessary validation and verification of the data. This allows for immediate
processing of data and results generated to provide immediate output to users. Data
does not have to wait, as is the case under batch processing.

Data is fed directly into the computer system from on-line terminals without the storing,
sorting (these are done on-line)

Advantages
 Processing is instantaneous
 Files and databases are always up to date

Disadvantages
 The systems are expensive to and complex to develop and put up.
 Data with errors may be processed with damaging effect.
 Hardware costs are high, there is need for on-line terminals, more CPU power,
large on-line storage and back up facilities.

6. Time Sharing Processing

Processor time is shared between users to provide multi-access (many users accessing
data at the same time). This can be done by minicomputers and mainframe computer
systems.

Advantages
a. Each user is given a chance
b. More than one person can use the computer at the same time.

Disadvantages
The user may not require a service at the time his slice is given - this results in too much
excess capacity at some periods.

THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

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Data Acquisition
(From source Documents)

Output Communication Input/ Capture

Storage Processing

Stage 1
Data acquisition - this is the collection of data from source documents for input into the
computer system.

Stage 2
Input/Capture - This is the putting of the acquired data into the system e.g. through
typing, scanning, or other forms of input.
Validation - the quality of the data is checked before it is entered or processed and
errors detected and eliminated.
Verification - data is checked for mistakes in copying so that it is correct.
There may be gabbage in and gabbage out (GIGO) meaning that information systems
will produce erroneous output if provided with erroneous input data or instructions. To
avoid GIGO common validation is done:
a. Checking data reasonableness, e.g. pregnancy for a three year old would be
unreasonable.
b. Checking data consistency - e.g. it would be inconsistent to record a pregnant
male.
c. Checking range units e.g. it would be impossible to have 30hours worked by one
worker in a day.
d. Timeliness - that data is not out of date.

Stage 3
Processing - this is the key part of the cycle where data is converted into information.
This is where calculations and other logical and manipulative operations on the data are
done. Specific applications are used to process the data e.g. word processing,
spreadsheet, payroll packages etc

Stage 4

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Storage - information is stored on various storage media including hard disks, floppy
disks, magnetic tapes etc.

Stage 5
Output - The processed information is eventually displayed for use by the user through
the various output systems - printers, VDUs, sound cards & speakers.

DATA PROCESSING PERSONNEL

The job involving the capture, processing and output of data and information involves a
number of people. Sometimes there may be one person to do this and often there may
be a department solely responsible for data processing or for Information technology.

The data processing department interacts with all other departments from where it gets
data and for whom it processes and eventually provides the information to.
The main functions of a DP department are:
a. Design and install a custom built system of data capture and processing.
b. Provision of advice to the organisation on matters regarding the processing of
information e.g. the selection of the correct devices for input, process, storage
and output.
c. Provides advice on the installation of a package or information system
d. Manage the organisation's data processing resources.
A typical DP/IT department

Data Processing Manager

Systems Manager Programming Manager Operations Manager

DBA BA SA TA AP SP DPS SL DPL

CO CO CO CO CO CO

Key: DBA -Database Administrator

BA - Business Analyst
SA - System Analyst
TA -Technical Analyst
AP -Application analyst
SP -System Programmer
DPS -Data control Supervisor
SL -Shift Leader
DPL -Data Processing Librarian

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CO -Computer Operator

1. Data processing Manager

He is the head of the IT or DP department covering the three main areas of system
development, programming, and operations management.

The Main Duties of the DPM

a. Development and assisting in producing data processing policy for the
organisation.
b. Execution of the defined data processing policy
c. Management of the data processing function
d. Liaising with data user departments
e. Working with management to identify problem areas and areas of improvement.
f. Ensuring proper systems development, system maintenance and computer
operating standards exist, are kept up to date.
g. Ensuring proper security and back-up arrangements are in existence and are
tested regularly.
h. Ensuring that the systems are adequately documented.
i. Ensure proper evaluation of the implemented systems.
j. Providing suitable training for the data personnel.
k. Coordination of all activities in the department
l. Resolution of conflict within the department and between the department and
other departments.
m. Provide guidance on issues of data processing
n. Recommends on staffing issues.

2. System Analyst
The title and function of this person may vary from organisation to organisation or as an
organisation develops from stage to the other. As the computer is applied to the
different organisational problems, the duties of the analyst may change.
A business analyst would require less skill than the system designer or the technical
analyst. These personnel deal with more or less the same task but with differing depth.
Main Duties
a. Examine the feasibility of potential computer applications and to consider all the
various approaches to computerisation that are available.
b. To perform the proper analysis of user systems and requirements.
c. Develop a cost benefit analysis in conjunction with the users.
d. Design system, which take into account not only the computer procedures but
the clerical and other procedures around the computer system.
e. To specify the check and controls to be incorporated into the system in
conjunction with the audit staff.
f. To specify the most appropriate processing techniques to be used e.g. micro,
mini or mainframe, batch or real time processing.

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g. To ensure that there is proper communication and clear instructions at each
stage of the project e.g. programme specification, file set up, operating
instructions, print out volumes.
h. To ensure the system is properly set up and documented.
i. To ensure a proper environment for system testing and pilot running and parallel
running of the system as may be appropriate.

3. Programmer
After design the programmer comes in. He uses the program specifications
produced by the analyst/system designer to develop the programme. The
programme specifications may consist of file and records layouts, field description,
report and screen layouts.
A flow chart or diagram indicating the main logical steps in the proposed program
may be made.
The programmer converts specifications from the system analyst into a working
programme.

Duties
a. To reach an understanding of what each programme is expected to do and to
clarify any problems with the analyst or systems designer.
b. To design the structure of the programme in accordance with installations
standards.
c. To provide a working of an efficient programme using the installations standards
within the budgeted time and funds.
d. To test programmes thoroughly both as a unit and in relation to other
programmes.
e. To provide the required programme documentation.

Once the programme is in place, the maintenance programmer would take the
responsibility of correcting any subsequent problems and recommend any
improvements.

4. Systems Programmer
He specializes in non-application programmes e.g. operating systems, data
communications
Duties
a. Liaising with computer supplier to keep abreast with operating system changes.
b. Support systems analyst and programmer regards queries on the system
software performance and features.
c. Assisting the programmer to interpret and resolve problems which appear to be
caused by the system software rather than application software.

5. Application programmer

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He writes programmes or adapts software packages to carry out specific task or
operations for the computer users e.g. a sales analysis programme for the marketing
department.
Duties
a. discuss the programme specification with the analyst.
b. To write the sources program module.
c. To test the programme and debug it.
d. To maintain programmes correcting errors, making improvements &
modifications to allow for changing business methods, circumstances or
equipment.
e. Encode the procedure detailed by the analyst in a language suitable for the
specified computer.
f. Liase with the analyst and other users on the logical correctness of the
programme.

6. Computer Operator
S/he operates the mainframe or mini computer. He is responsible for the efficient
running of the computer equipment, which if not ensured efficient running time of the
computer may be lost.
Duties
a. Collecting files and programs required for a computer run from the library.
b. Loading magnetic tapes and disks into drives.
c. Putting stationery into the printer.
d. Carrying out routine maintenance such as cleaning the tapes and read write
heads.
e. Ensure the equipment is running efficiently and reporting any faults to the
technicians.
f. Replacement of computer accessories e.g. toner catridges, ribbons, ink.
g. Switching the computer on/off.
h. Handles and operates the computer hardware.
i. Handles computer input and output.
j. Responds to messages on the operator's console prompted by the operating
system that monitors the user's requests and the status of the peripherals.
k. Watching the process of individual jobs and of the computer in general.
l. Keeping a log of what happens to supplement the log that the computer
produces.

7. Data Preparation/Entry Clerk

This is the keystation operator who transcribes source data into computer sensible
form.
Duties
a. Prepares data for input into the computer
b. Enters the data into the computer for processing.

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c. Monitors the processing and output.
d. Does some operations of the computer operator.

8. Database Administrator
This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the
organisation's database. This person relates to the management, system analysts,
programmers and other stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to have
adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore must have a
sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Duties
a. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
b. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data
c. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
d. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the
designing and availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving
such direction as the general use of the database, access to information, deletion
of records from the system and the general validation and verification of data.

Duties of the personnel overlap and depending on the size of the organisation or the IT
department some duties are done by one person.

FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

File Concepts

The purpose of a computer file is to hold data required for providing information. A
computer file is a collection of related records. Records consist of fields and the fields
are made up of characters. A character is the smallest element of a file. A character may
be a letter of the alphabet, a digit or of a special form (symbols).

Logical files show what data items are contained and what processing may be done
while physical files are viewed in terms of how data is stored on storage media.

Types of Files

1. Master Files – They hold permanent data for use in applications such as stock
control, credit control. Usually much of the data items in these files do not
change frequently or with each transaction e.g name, address or date of birth.
2. Transaction files – These are also called movement files. They hold temporary
records of values. They are used to update the master file and are overwritten
after the updating of the master file.

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3. Look up files – they are reference files from which such information as prices list
and mailing list can be obtained.
4. Archive files – these are files that are used to store information that has not
been in use in the recent past and would not be in use in the near future – so are
used to store historical data.

File Structures

This is the way a records are stored on the storage device or medium. This is how the
files are arranged. The arrangement also affects the way these files will be accessed.

1. Sequential Files – the files are stored and accessed in sequence i.e. one after
another. Access the file is dependent on the position of the file on the storage
medium. Accessing the files is by moving usually through spooling to the relevant
file. This is the structure of filing on magnetic tapes. It is most suitable where all
the records on the file are being considered e.g. in the preparation of a payroll
but would be inefficient where the selection of one record is necessary e.g.
access to one employee on the payroll.
2. The Direct File Structure – The files are randomly stored. Access and storage of
the records not depend on the physical position of the record on the file. This is
the form of file structure on magnetic disks, floppy disks, or on optical disks.
Each record is given a specific disk address by which it is recognized and
accessed. This is the structure used to store and access records and files on the
Automatic Teller Machine (ATMs) systems. Access to records is much faster.
However, there could be conflict resolution where several records generate the
same address – this problem has been dealt with the use of conflict resolution
mechanisms on the computer and filing systems.
3. Indexed Sequential File Structure – This combines the features of sequential and
direct file structures. Records are stored sequentially on a direct access medium
like the hard disk and each record occupies an addressable location identifiable
by the unique disk address. An index is developed to keep track of the records
and their physical locations on the storage medium. The records can be stored
and accessed sequentially starting from the beginning moving through the
records one at a time or can be stored and accessed directly e.g. the way the cell
phone’s phone book is structured.

On all the types and structures discussed above a user may add or remove a file or
record, modify contents of the file or record, view the contents of the data and
create reports as may be necessary. These operations on the data can be done on-
line i.e. files and records updated as the transactions are being entered from a
device connected onto the main CPU of the system.

DATABASE CONCEPTS

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A database is a single organized collection of structured data. It is a collection of

related files that are stored in a uniform way for ease of access. It can also be
defined as a collection of logically related records or files previously stored
separately so that a common pool of data records is formed.

A database has a number of advantages over the keeping of separate files:

Data Independence - data can be defined and described separately from the
application programme. Where there is no data independence a change in any
record would then necessitate the changing of the programme to access the file.
Data Redundancy - The same data element appears in a number of files but serving
the same purpose and usually thus staying unused.

Data Inconsistency - this is when redundant data is not updated accurately so much
that there are differences in the data elements on the different files.

Advantages of the Database

a. Easier data sharing leading to economies of scale
b. Reduced data redundancy
c. Improved data consistency
d. Improved data independence
e. Increased application programmer productivity
f. Improved data administration and control
g. Increased emphasis on data as a resource

Disadvantages of Databases
a. Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to
update the same record at the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent
this.
b. Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and
thus refuse access by other individuals or departments in the organisation.
c. Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more
workstations and other devices.
d. Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorized entry into the
data this could be reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords and by
physically denying access to unauthorized users.

The Database Management System (DBMS)

It is a complex system of software that constructs, expands and maintains the

database. It provides a controlled interface between the database and the user.

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Application
Programme DB
DBMS
Application
Programme

Components of a DBMS
Data Dictionary - this is a database management tool that has names and
descriptions of all data elements within a database.

Data repositories - these are an extension of the data dictionary which provide a
directory of component parts of the dB and other information resources in the
organisation.

Data languages - a definition language is needed to place the data in the data
dictionary through the use of commands such as sort, get, find etc.

Teleprocessing Monitor - This is a software that controls and manages the

communication between remote terminals e.g. from and to sales points in a large
departmental store.

Applications Development Software - this is a set of development software used to

help the user programmer to develop database software.

Security Software - this is a set of software used to minimize unauthorized access to

the database.

Archiving and Recovery Systems - these systems are used to store backups of the
original record so that if the original database is damaged the information can still
be recovered.

Report Writers - these allow the user to obtain reports from the data quicker and
easier.

Functions of the DBMS

a. Allocates storage space to data
b. It maintains indices to allow for easy access too data items.
c. It allows for the addition, editing and deletion of files in the database.
d. Provides an interface with user programmes which may be written in different
programming languages.
e. Provides for the processing of files in different ways:
(i) processing of a complete file (sequentially or serially)

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(ii) process required records (selective, sequential or random)
(iii) retrieve individual records
f. Provides security for the data in the database through:
(i) denying unauthorized access to data
(ii) preventing data corruption
(iii) providing data recovery in the case of failure
g. Keeps a record of statistics of the use of data in the database, this assists in the
removal of redundant (duplicated) data, it also keeps frequently used data more
accessible.

The Database Administrator

This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the
organisation's database. This person relates to the management, system analysts,
programmers and other stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to have
adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore must have a
sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Responsibilities of the DBA

e. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
f. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data
g. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
h. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the
designing and availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving
such direction as the general use of the database, access to information, deletion
of records from the system and the general validation and verification of data.

Database structures (Entity relationship Models)

Records in the database may be set in different ways depending on the relationships
between the records themselves.

1. One to One relationship - this is where one record is related to one other record
e.g. single parent record to one child record

Record

Recor
d

This can be represented in a relational entity model, in E-R diagrams

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1 Represents 1

This could be where one sales representative deals with one customer for example.

2. One to many relationships - one parent to many children

Record

Record Record Record

In the form of an E-R diagram

Record 1 Represents N Records

E.g. one sales representative for relating to many customers.

3. Many to one - where there are many parents to one child

Record Record Record

Record

In E-R diagram

Records M Represents N Record

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e.g. many sales representatives relating with on customer, many lecturers relating to
one student.

4. Many to many - with two or more parents relating to two or more children

Record Record Record

Record Record Record

In E-R diagram:

Records M Represents N Records

This could be the many sales reps relate to many customers.

Distributed Versus Centralized Database

A distributed database is when the databases are scattered whereas a centralized dB is
where the databases are located in one area and usually under management of a group
of people. A dB may be distributed in two ways: Replicated or partitioned.

A replicated dB is one that has been copied and is kept at different geographical
locations. This allows for easier recovery if one fails and reduces data transmission costs,
as there would be little long distance transmission thus is also faster. This, however, it is
expensive in terms of computer resources.

A partitioned dB is one that is split into segments and each segment distributed to the
relevant location. This reduces transmission costs and provides a faster turnaround time
in input, processing and output. There is reduced data inconsistency and redundancy.
However, there is need for more computer resources that are costly.

An Online dB - this is a dB that is allows for the immediate updating of files from remote
terminals since input will be directly intyo the system e.g. stock market information.

DATA SECURITY

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This refers to measures to reduce unauthorized access to, use and destruction of an
organisation’s data and data resources.

Data is a valuable resource like any other asset of an organization. Data like money can
be stolen and exchanged for some value. Organisations have some pieces of data that
are confidential and these need to be secure. Every organization needs to take security
of hardware, software and data seriously because the consequences of breaches of
security can be extremely damaging to a business. This may lead to loss of production,
cashflow problems, loss of customers and reputation.

Threats to security come from outside (external) and inside (internal) the organisation

Securing data entails making sure that the computers are in the right environment,
there are right software measures to reduce loss or theft of data.

Security of Equipment

There is need to look after the computer hardware well to avoid loss of data or the
computers themselves.

Requirements for a Computer Environment (Computer Room)

1. Ventilation – a good room has to be adequately ventilated. If ventilation is poor

the computer may over heat and thus fail to operate properly.
2. Power supply – power supply should of the right voltage and supplied from safe
socket outlet. Power cables should not cross the room to avaid interfering with
free movements.
3. Use of Uninterupted Power Supplies (UPS) – in the event of unanticipated power
loss or power surge there should be some standby power alternative so that the
users’s information is not lost.
4. Carpet – Carpets are good dust absorbers, this thus reduces dust in the room,
dust interferes with the operation of electronic equipment.
5. Curtains – Curtains reduce the amount of light getting to the screens and other
computer equipment. Light damages screens.
6. Lockable doors – doors should be lockable to avoid unauthorized access to the
computers or theft or vandalism of the computer systems. The key should be
kept with some responsible person.
7. Metal Bars and Shutters – Fit room with metal bars and shutter.
8. An alarm system – an alarm system may be installed to warn of an intrision.
9. ID badges – all users to use ID badges for access to the room or building.
10. Security guards – have a twenty-four hour guard to the room.
11. Attach computers permanently to desks using clamps to avoid theft of the
computer(s).

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12. Have all equipment serial numbers for use if equipment is stolen.
13. Have fire fighting systems in place to deal with ant risks of fire to the equipment.
14. Reduce levels of moisture – moisture damages electronic equipment.

Security of Data

Data itself is at risk of accidental or deliberate loss and theft.

Accidental Loss

Accidental loss may be caused by:

- document is accidentally deleted
- computer breaks down or power fails
- file or disk becomes corrupted
- file is destroyed by fire or flood.

To reduce the risk of loss to accidental loss there is the use of back up of data – there
should be a saved copy of the original file that is kept on a different medium and place.

Deliberate Damage

This is loss of data by viruses or hackers

Viruses
A computer virus is a harmful program that copies itself onto other programmes and
destroys them or interferes with their proper functioning.

Presence of viruses can be noticed by:

(a) Displaying of messages
(b) Deleting data and programme files
(c) Failure of computer to detect peripherals
(d) Display of irritating messages or images
(e) Exaggerated file and document sizes.
(f) Unwanted formatting of hard disk
(g) Playing music
(h) Computer fails to boot up

Viruses are transmitted from computer to computer. They copy themselves quickly.
Effects of viruses may be mild to severe. Some viruses are harmless and computers may
operate normally.

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Characteristics of viruses

(a) Copies itself

(b) Hides
(c)

To reduce the risk of viral infection:

(a) Use anti-virus software
(b) Use genuine software
(c) Write protect all software programs
(d) Make regular

COMPUTERS AND HEALTH AND SAFETY

Computer and computer equipment have negative health effects on the users. Research
is still being carried out to determine the extent of the effects on the health of users.

The main effects are:

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
(b) Eye strain from VDU use
(c) Bad posture
(d) Risk of an accident
(e) Exposure to radiation

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury

This refers to disorders that affect the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders or neck of
computer operators. It is inflammation of the joints and is caused by making the
same small movements over and over again. This can cause pain, numbness,
swelling and the inability to lift or grip objects. In some cases, operators have
become permanently disabled.

To reduce RSI
- make sure the desk and chair are at suitable heights
- sit at a comfortable distance fro the keyboard
- make sure that lower arms are horizontal and wrists straight when using
a keyboard or mouse.
- Use a wrist rest if necessary so that you do not rest you wrists on the
edge of the table or keyboard.

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- Take frequent breaks to stretch your arms and fingers

(b) Eye Strain From VDU

Using the VDU for long periods at a time may affect a user’s eyes and in some
instances cause headaches.

To reduce eye strain:

- desks and VDUs area arranged to avoid glare or bright reflections on the
screen.
- Arrange desks so that user is not looking at windows or lights
- Use curtains and window blinds
- Sharply focus VDU so that characters do not move and flicker
- Have regular eye tests
- Adjust screen brightness and contrast to suit lighting conditions
- Adjust the angle of the screen to your sitting height
- Keep the screen clean
- Use a document holder so that you do not lean over to read documents.
- Take a break every 20 to 30 minutes.

(c) Posture

Sitting incorrectly or without right support at a computer terminal for long

periods may result in back, neck and upper arm pains.

To reduce posture related problems:

- Use adjustable chairs to adjust height
- Use adjustable backrests
- Use swivel chairs
- Use footrest
- Always sit well
- Change sitting positions regularly
- Take frequent short breaks

(d) Risk of Accident

If it may be necessary to shift a computer, if not done properly may result in

injury to the worker. There may also be problems relating to power and falling
over of computer equipment that is not put up properly.

(e) Risk of Exposure Radiation

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Some computer equipment produces radiation that has long-term effects on
users or on unborn babies.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1. The Internet
Definition
Facilities
 Bulletin Boards – Magazines, newspapers * Web Television
 Music * Software downloading
(shareware)
 Discussion Groups * Shopping Malls
 Libraries * Research
 Tuition and Virtual Learning (e-learning) * Job Opportunities
 E-commerce * E-mail
 Weather reports * Date line

2. Telecommuting
This involves working from home while connected to the office through computer
networks. This means the workers do not need to travel to workplaces. This has the
advantage of saving time to the worker in terms of travel especially in highly congested
cities. It also saves costs of fuel to the worker. However, traditional supervision methods
do not apply.

3. Teleconferencing
This is also know as confra-vision. It is a facility through which people in distant places
can hold a conference like discussion while seeing each other on computer screens. The
biggest advantage of this form of technology is in the saving of conference costs like
venue hire, travel and subsistence. There is also the benefit of body language that the
people using this technology have.

4. Decision Support Systems

 Expert Systems – Artificial Intelligence

5. Connectivity

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 Increased use of networks
 Use of shared databases

6. End User Computing

 Definition
 Appropriateness

7. Data Security Concerns

 Security Issues – e.g passwords, encryption, physical access controls, viruses
 Computer Crime – Types (e.g Hacking, computer espionage, data theft)
8. Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
 Definition
 Appropriateness

9. Globalization
 Role of IT in Globalisation

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