CHAPTER 14 – WAVES

Wave

A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one

point to another point without any actual movement of the medium. There are
three types of waves

1. Mechanical Waves Those waves which require a material medium for

their propagation, are called mechanical waves, e.g., sound waves,
water waves etc.

They involve oscillations of constituent particles and depend on the

elastic properties of the medium

2. Electromagnetic Waves Those waves which do not require a material

medium for their propagation, are called electromagnetic waves, e.g.,
light waves, radio waves etc.

In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves have the same speed c, whose

value is : c = 3 x 10 8 km/s

3. Matter Waves These waves are associated with moving particles of

matter, like electrons, protons, neutrons etc.

Nature of Waves
i) Transverse waves A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, is called a transverse
wave.

(ii) Longitudinal waves A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in
the same direction in which wave is propagating, is called a longitudinal wave.

Sound waves The longitudinal mechanical waves due to which diaphragm of our
ears vibrates and gives sensation of hearing are called sound waves. These are of
three types

(i) Infrasonic Waves The sound waves of frequency lies between 0 to 20 Hz are
called infrasonic waves.

(ii) Audible Waves The sound waves of frequency lies between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
are called audible waves.

(iii) Ultrasonic Waves The sound waves of frequency greater than 20000 Hz are
called ultrasonic waves.

[sound waves cannot propagate through vacuum. If Vs, Vl and Vg are speed of sound
waves in solid, liquid and gases, then Vs > Vl > Vg Sound waves (longitudinal waves)
can reflect, refract, interfere and diffract but cannot be polarised as only transverse
waves can polarised.]

DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A PROGRESSIVE WAVE

A progressive wave is one which travels in a given direction with constant amplitude.
represents a sinusoidal (harmonic) wave travelling along the positive direction of the x-axis.

On the other hand, a function represents a wave travelling in the negative direction of x-axis
is

EQUATION OF A PROGRESSIVE WAVE

Suppose a transversal progressive wave is travelling along positive x direction with velocity
v.

V= n λ

Consider two point , point O as origin and any

point. Same disturbance reach from O to P in
time t and cover x distance.

Displacement at origin yo = a sinωt (time= disp/time)

Displacement at point P at time t= Displacement at origin yo at time (t-x/v)

y = a sinω(t-x/v)

y = a sin (ωt-ωx/v)

y = a sin (ωt-kx) (ω/v = k)

Different forms of equation of progressive waves

Time Period T of oscillation of a wave is defined as the time to move through one complete
oscillation. It is related to the angular frequency ω through the relation

T = 2π /ω

Frequency of a wave is defined as number of oscillation completed in unit time.

v= 1/T = ω/2π

Wavenumber

The wavenumber is also known as propagation number, or angular wavenumber is defined

as the number of wavelengths per unit distance.

it is equal to the inverse of wavelength. It is a scalar quantity represented by k

k = 1/ λ

for complete cycle

k = 2π/ λ Measured using rad/m

Wavelength

Wavelength λ of a progressive wave is the distance between two consecutive points of the same
phase at a given time.

In transversal wave, Wavelength is the distance between the two

successive crests, either troughs or peaks.

In transversal wave, Wavelength is the distance between the two

successive compression either rarefaction.
THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE

Wave velocity/speed is the distance covered by wave in unit time in the direction of
propagation is called wave velocity. It is different from particle velocity. Wave velocity
depends upon the nature of medium.

In one complete oscillation wave covered distance λ in time period T

Wave velocity = distance / time

V=λ/T

Wave velocity (υ) = frequency (v) x wavelength (λ)

It should be noted that the speed of a mechanical wave is determined by the inertial and
elastic properties.
Speed of a Longitudinal Wave (Speed of Sound)

The sound waves travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions of small volume elements of
air. The elastic property that determines the stress under compressional strain is the bulk modulus
of the medium.

SPEED OF SOUND IN AN IDEAL GAS ( Newton’s formula)

Basic assumption made by Newton that the pressure variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal.

The speed v of sound wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density ρ is

For an ideal gas, the pressure P, volume V and temperature T are related by

PV = NRT

for an isothermal change PV = CONSTANT ∆ (PV)=0

bulk modulus of the medium defined by

Hence B = P

So, the speed of a longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given by,

This relation was first given by Newton and is known as Newton’s formula.

Laplace correction

According to Newton’s formula for the speed of sound in a medium, we get for the speed of sound
in air at STP,

The result is about 15% smaller as compared to the experimental value of 331 m s–1

It was pointed out by Laplace that the pressure variations in the propagation of sound waves are so
fast that there is little time for the heat flow to maintain constant temperature. These variations,
therefore, are adiabatic and not isothermal.

For adiabatic processes the ideal gas satisfies the relation

PV γ = constant
The speed of sound is, therefore,

This modification of Newton’s formula is referred to as the Laplace correction. For air γ = 7/5. the
speed of sound in air at STP, we get a value 331.3 m s–1 , which agrees with the measured speed.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

When two or more waves traverse simultaneously in the same medium, the displacement of any
element of the medium is the algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave. This is known
as the principle of superposition of waves.

let y1 (x,t) and y2 (x,t) be the displacements due to two wave disturbances in the medium.

For n number of waves, then the wave function describing the disturbance in the medium is

The principle of superposition is basic to the phenomenon of interference.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

Compare with standard wave eq y (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)

Amplitude A(φ) = 2a cos ½φ

For φ = 0, when the waves are in phase,

cos 0 = 1

the resultant wave has amplitude 2a, the largest possible value for A.

It is called constructive interference of the two waves where the amplitudes add up in the resultant
Phase difference between two waves = 0, 2π, 4π

Intensity ∝ (Amplitude)2 ∝ (a + b)2wave.

Maximum amplitude = (a + b)

DISTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

Amplitude A(φ) = 2a cos ½φ

For φ = π , the waves are completely, out of phase and the resultant wave has zero displacement
everywhere at all times

y (x, t) = 0

This is the case of destructive interference where the amplitudes subtract out in the resultant wave.

Phase difference between two waves = π, 3π, 5π

Minimum amplitude = (a ~ b) = Difference of component amplitudes.

Intensity ∝ (Amplitude)2 ∝ (a – b)2

REFLECTION OF WAVE

During waves propagation if the boundary is rigid, the pulse or wave gets reflected. The
phenomenon of echo is an example of reflection by a rigid boundary.

the reflected wave has the same shape as the incident pulse but it suffers a phase change of π or
1800 on reflection.
REFRACTED WAVE

If the boundary is not completely rigid or is an interface between two different elastic media, a part
of the incident wave is reflected and a part is transmitted into the second medium. If a wave is
incident obliquely on the boundary between two different media the transmitted wave is called the
refracted wave.

STANDING WAVES AND NORMAL MODES

When two identical waves of same amplitude and frequency travelling in

opposite direction with the same speed along the same path, superpose each
other and the resultant wave does not travel in either direction and is called
stationary or standing waves.

Consider a wave travelling along the positive direction of x-axis and a reflected wave of the same
amplitude and wavelength in the negative direction of x-axis.
Result

 The terms kx and ωt appear separately, not in the combination kx - ωt.

 The amplitude of this wave is 2a sin kx. Thus, in this wave pattern, the amplitude varies from
point-to-point.
 The wave pattern is neither moving to the right nor to the left. Hence, they are called
standing or stationary waves.

NODES AND ANTINODES

The points at which the amplitude is zero (i.e., where there is no motion at all) are
Nodes, pressure is maximum at these points.
The points at which the amplitude is the largest are called antinodes, pressure is minimum
at these points.

STANDING WAVES IN STRING FIXED AT BOTH ENDS

The most significant feature of stationary waves is that the boundary conditions constrain the
possible wavelengths or frequencies of vibration of the system. The system cannot oscillate with any
arbitrary frequency (contrast this with a harmonic travelling wave), but is characterised by a set of
natural frequencies or normal modes of oscillation. Let us determine these normal modes for a
stretched string fixed at both ends.

y (x, t) = 2a sin kx cos ωt (amplitude = 2a sin kx)

the positions of nodes (where the amplitude is zero) are given by

sin kx = 0 . which implies kx = nπ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

Since, k = 2π/λ , we get 2πx/λ = nπ , n λ /2 ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

Clearly, the distance between any two successive nodes is λ 2 .

The positions of antinodes (where the amplitude is the largest) are given by the largest value of sinkx

Again the distance between any two consecutive antinodes is λ/2.

The lowest possible natural frequency of a system is called its fundamental mode or the first
harmonic. For the stretched string fixed at either end it is given by

f = v/ λ , f = v / 2L (L = λ/2 )
fn = nv /2L , corresponding to n = 1 , f1= v /2L

L is length stretched string .speed of wave determined by the properties of the medium.

Frequency of first overtone or second harmonic

f2 = 2(v/2l) = 2f1

Frequency of second overtone or third harmonic

f3 = 3(v/2l) = 3f1

f1 : f2 : f3 : … = 1 : 2 : 3 : …

Fundamental Note It is the sound of lowest frequency produced in vibration of a

system.

Overtones Tones having frequencies greater than the Fundamental note are called
overtones.

Harmonics When the frequencies of overtone are integral multiples of the

fundamental, then they are known as harmonics. Thus note of lowest frequency n is
called fundamental note or first harmonics. The note of frequency 2n is
called second harmonic or first overtone.

Beats

When two sound waves of nearly equal frequencies and comparable amplitudes are
produced simultaneously, then intensity of the resultant sound produced by their
superposition increases and decreases alternately with time. This rise and fall
intensity of sound is called beats.

The number of maxima or minima heard in one second is called beats frequency.

[The difference of frequencies should not be more than 10. Sound persists on human
ear drums for 0.1 second. Hence, beats will not be heard if the frequency difference
exceeds 10]

Number of beats heard per second = n1 – n2 = difference of frequencies of two

waves.

Maximum amplitude = (a1 + a2)

Maximum intensity = (Maximum amplitude)2 = (a1 + a2)2

Organ Pipes

Organ pipes are those cylindrical pipes filled with air, having rigid walls and diameter
less than its length is called an organ pipe. Such pipes are used in producing
musical sound by pushing air into the pipe. Flute is the best example of an organ
pipe

1. Open Organ Pipe Cylindrical pipes open at both ends.

2. Closed Organ Pipe Cylindrical pipes open at one end closed at other end.

Vibrations in Open Organ Pipe

Every time wavelength and frequency will change but velocity of wave propagation
always remains the same.

Fundamental frequency or frequency of first harmonic

L = 2λ/4 , λ = 4L/2

f = v/ λ , f = v / 4L/2

f1 = v / 2L

Frequency of first overtone or second harmonic

L = 4λ/4 , λ = 4L/4

f2 = v/ λ , f2 = v / 4L/4 , 4v/4L , 4v/2.2l

f2 = 2(v/2l) = 2 f1

Frequency of second overtone or third harmonic

L = 6λ/4 , λ = 4L/6

f3 = v/ λ , f3 = v / 4L/6 , 6v/4L , 3v/2.2l

f3 = 3(v/2l) = 3 f1

f1 : f2 : f3: …. = 1 : 2 : 3 …

fn = (2n+1) f1

Therefore, even and odd harmonics are produced by an open organ pipe.

Standing waves in Closed Organ Pipe

If the waves with some frequency are sent through the closed pipe, the waves get reflected from
closed end. When the incident and reflected waves with same frequency and in opposite direction
superimposed the stationary waves formed in the closed pipe.
Let, l be the length of pipe v be the velocity of sound.
The first harmonic will form only when there is a node at closed end and anti-node at open end of
pipe.

Fundamental frequency or frequency of first harmonic

L = λ/4 , λ = 4L

f = v/ λ , f = v / 4L

f1 = v / 2L

Frequency of first harmonic or third harmonic

L = 3λ/4 , λ = 4L/3

f2 = v/ λ , f = v / 4L/3

f2 = 3v / 4L , f2 = 3(v/4L) f2 = 3f1

Frequency of second overtone or fifth harmonic

L = 5λ/4 , λ = 4L/5

f3 = v/ λ , f3 = v / 4L/5 , 5v/4L

f3 = 5(v/4l) = 5f1

f1 : f2 : f3: …. = 1 : 3 : 5 …

fn = (n+1) f1 Therefore only odd harmonics are produced by a closed organ pipe.