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Chenguttuvan
Weston Type Frequency Meter
Construction:
It consists of 2 coils inductive coil and resistive coil, which are the right angle to one
another. The 2 pairs, resistor RA, and coil A and inductor LA and coil B pair are placed in series,
other pairs, LA and coil A, and RB, and coil B are placed parallelly. The meter consists of a
soft pointer made up of iron and a magnetic needle which is placed at the center. The inductor
“L” connected is in series with “LA and RB ” minimizes the errors.

Working:
Case1: On applying current to the circuit,
it flows through the 2 perpendicular coils,
coil A & coil B. Thereby setting up the
magnetic field, were the field magnitude is
directly proportional to its current in the
coil. The coil A & coil B magnetic fields
act on the magnetic needle as well as on
soft iron, where the position of the needle
is based on the magnetic fields, and
the relative magnitude that acts on it.

Case2: At the condition where the normal frequency is applied to the meter, there will be a
voltage drop in resistance and reactance, LA, and RB of the same magnitude. This results in an
equal flow of current through the coils A and B. The circuit is designed in a proper manner that
the voltage drop remains the same across LA, LB RA, RB, whenever normal frequency is
passed. This allows the magnetic needle pointing at 45 degrees concerning, both coils and soft
iron needle pointing at the center.

Case3: Whereas on passing high-frequency trough the circuit, there will be an increase in
reactance LA and LB of the coil, and the resistances on another side RA, RB, remain the same.
In other words, the inductance increases the impedance of the coil A, and if the current
magnitude in coil A decreases, the field developed due to coil A current also decreases.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

 More current flows in coil B than coil A, since coil B is connected parallelly. Hence
coil B has a stronger magnetic field compared with coil A, and the pointer moves towards the
strongest magnetic field that is coil B.Finally, the frequency which is to be determined reduces
from its normal value, and the pointer indicates the value of unknown frequency towards the
left side.

Advantages
• Highly sensitive
• Construction is simple
• The frequency scale is linear
• Readings are independent of voltages
• It is suitable for measuring a wide range of voltage.
Disadvantages
• Sensitive to temperature variation
• The presence of rectifiers results in distortion producing inaccurate frequency output.
Applications
• Used for testing radio equipment’s
• Used for measuring transducers.

Vibrating-reed Frequency Meter

A vibrating-reed frequency meter is
measuring instrument which is used to measure
the frequency of various electric circuits. It consists
of 7 vibrating reeds and each vibrating reed has a
specific value.
These reeds vibrate when this frequency
meter is connected to supply for the measurement of
frequency. A reed which vibrates more as compared
to the other reeds, the more vibrating reed is
considered as frequency reading of a supply or
electric circuit.
This frequency meter consists of thin flat steel
reeds which are arranged alongside and these reeds are near to the electromagnet. The

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

electromagnet consists of a laminated armature and a winding connected with a resistance in
series on it. This winding is connected to the AC supply whose frequency is to be measured.
The metallic reeds are 4mm wide and 0.5 mm thick. These metallic reeds are arranged in a row
and consists of flexible base and these bases carries armature of the electromagnet. These reeds
are coloured with white colour. These reeds are arranged in ascending order of frequency on a
scale.

Working :
To measure the frequency of the circuit, it is compulsory to connect the frequency meter
to a supply. The electromagnet is connected to the supply for which frequency is to be
measured. The magnetism of the electromagnet alternates with the same frequency and the
electro-magnet exerts the attracting force on each reed once every half cycle. All reeds start
vibrating but the reed whose frequency is double, vibrates with maximum amplitude due to
mechanical resonance. The vibration of the other reeds is so small and these are unobservable.

Advantages
• Its indications are independent.
• Its readings are reliable.
• These are cheap.

Disadvantages
• The reading is not be observed properly if the frequency difference is half cycle between
the adjacent reeds.
• These instruments are not accurate to provide the exact reading on its scale.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Electrodynamic Frequency Meter
Moving coil frequency meters or electrodynamic frequency meters are ratiometer types
of instruments. These meters are employed to determine the frequency of both excessively low
and high voltage ranges. They offer accurate frequency readings and are made up of a rectifier
circuit and two moving coils.

Construction:
This frequency meter has two
moving coils connected and positioned to
each other at right angles on a shaft. Also,
a pointer is attached to this shaft. The
bridge rectifiers of these two moving coils
are coupled.
The bridge rectifier of the first
moving coil, C1, which is coupled to the
DC supply, is connected in series with a
capacitor in this circuit. Direct current,
also known as rectified current, travels to the bridge rectifier and the second coil C2 via a series
resistance.
These meters rely on a capacitor and resistance value. The ranges of these frequency
meters are 40–60 Hz, 1200–2000 Hz, and 8000–12000 Hz.

Working
When we connect the frequency to the supply, the rectified currents I1 and I2 pass
through the moving coils C1 and C2. These coil torques become equal but point in different
directions when they reach their rest positions.
Advantages
• The frequency scales on these meters are linear.
• Voltages do not affect the readings.
• These frequency meters provide a large voltage range as well as a low voltage range of
operation.
Disadvantages
The distortions that rectifiers produce lead to an incorrect frequency measurement.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Moving Iron Frequency Meter
Moving iron frequency meters are the meters in which the two coils are fixed and a
moving iron is attached to the spindle.

Construction
This meter consists of two fixed coils A
and B that their magnetic axes are
perpendicular or each other. A long and
soft iron needle in pivoted at their centers.
This circuit remains balanced at the
supply frequency to be measured. Coil A
consists of a series resistance Ra and
a reactance La in parallel and the coil B
consists of a series reisitance Rb and a
reactance Lb in parallel. The series
inductance helps to suppress higher
harmonics in the current waveform which helps to minimize the waveform errors in the
indication of the instruments.

Working:

When the supply is connected to the meter, the current pass through the coils A and B
and these two coils produce opposing torques. When the supply frequency increases then the
current of the coil A increases and decreases in the coil B. The iron needle lies more nearly to
the magnetic axis of the coil A. For low frequencies, the current of coil B increases and the
current of the coil A decreases.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Digital Voltmeter

• The input signal is fed as the input to the pulse generator. The pulse generator generates
rectangular pulses of width as that of input signal.
• The output of the pulse generator acts as the input the AND gate whose another input is a
sequence of pulses. This creates a positive triggered switch resulting in positive triggered
sequence of pulses having width same as the pulses generated by the pulse generator.
• The positive triggered pulses i.e. the output of AND gate is fed to invertor which inverts
the output of AND gate.
• The output of invertor is fed as an input to the counter which counts the total pulses and
time duration between the pulses.
• The last step involves showing the precise output mainly on LED and the reading is
calibrated and shown in Volts.

Block Diagram of Digital Voltmeter

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Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter
Working:
The voltage is measured by providing an unknown input signal to the ranging and
attenuation. Depending on the needs, the signal is attenuated or made stronger by amplification.
The ramp generator is a device which generates a positive or a negative ramp and our unknown
signal is compared to it. The comparator compares input signal to the ramp signal. If the input
voltage matches with ramp voltage then gate is opened with the pulse and after the ramp signal
reaches 0 ,the gate is closed. The time period between two events is called gating time
interval. This generates the ramp voltage

Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter

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Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter
This voltmeter measures exact value of input corresponding to the constant of time.
This circuit usually uses a voltage-to-frequency converter device which works on the feedback
control system. The main characteristic of this voltmeter is that the output from the integrator
is compared with the fixed level voltage of reference source.

Working:
In this, as soon as the input voltage is applied, the output voltage begins to increase
which fed to level detector. After the output voltage reaches a certain value, detector sends a
pulse to pulse generator gate. The integrator output is compared to fixed level voltage of the
internal reference source resulting in an output pulse. This output pulse from level detector.
This pulse opens gate which passes pulse from oscillator to pulse generator. The pulse generator
like a Schmitt trigger , generates pulses with fixed width and amplitude .So for each wave a
pulse is generated which helps to determine the input voltage.

Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
In this voltmeter the output of digital to Analog converter with a certain unknown
reference voltage. This meter can measure up to 100 readings per second. The voltmeter uses
an amplifier to choose a required range of input voltage and minimize the noise which can
cause distortion.

Working:
The input amplifier of this device helps to choose a range of input voltage and
eliminates any noise. The input is then sent to comparator through an S/H circuit. The
comparator generates a signal when it receives the analog signal. This is further sent to AND
gate whose output become one if and only if output of comparator is positive. In the end, a
digitized digital signal is generated from control registers giving us the required voltage.

Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter

The Successive Approximation Type DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block
diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10. When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the
successive approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The output of the SAR is 00000000. Vout of
the D/A converter is 0. Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is positive. During the first
clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vout jumps to the half reference voltage.
The SAR output is 10000000. If Vout is greater than Vin, the comparator output is negative and
the control circuit resets D7. However, if Vin is greater than Vout, the comparator output is

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

positive and the control circuits keep D7 set. Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from D7 to
D0 are set and tested. Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock pulses.
At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-stop
multivibrator. This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits (assuming an
8-bit control) its reading would be 10000000. This initial setting of the register causes the
output of the D/A converter to be half the reference voltage, i.e. 1/2 V. This converter output
is compared to the unknown input by the comparator. If the input voltage is greater than the
converter reference voltage, the comparator output produces an output that causes the control
register to retain the 1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply its reference
output voltage of 1/2 Vref.
The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control
register and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its
reference output by 1 increment to 1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V + 1/4 V, and again it is compared with the
unknown input. If in this case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage,
the comparator produces an output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to
0. The converter output then returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits another input
from the SAR. When the ring counter advances by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and the converter
output rises by the next increment of 1/2 V + 1/8 V. The measurement cycle thus proceeds
through a series of Successive Approximation Type DVM. Finally, when the ring counter
reaches its final count, the measurement cycle stops and the digital output of the control register
represents the final approximation of the unknown input voltage.

Dual Slope Integrating Digital Voltmeter

It consists of an integrator circuit which takes the unknown input for certain time
measured using a clock. The circuit consist of comparators, capacitors ,clock and counters
which generate the reference voltage with time. In this way we can measure the required
voltage.

Working:
In this, the integrator circuit receives an input signal for a specific period of time which
is measured using clock frequency. During this time, the capacitor gets charged and the charge
is proportional to the input voltage. At the end of this time, the switch is shifted from input

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

voltage to a reference voltage and the charging of capacitor decreases creating a downward
linear ramp voltage. This generates the required voltage.

Dual Slope Integrating Digital Voltmeter

At the start a pulse resets the

counter and the F/F output to logic
level ‘0’. Si is closed and Sr is open.
The capacitor begins to charge. As
soon as the integrator output
exceeds zero, the comparator output
voltage changes state, which opens
the gate so that the oscillator clock
pulses are fed to the counter. (When
the ramp voltage starts, the comparator goes to state 1, the gate opens and clock pulse drives
the counter.) When the counter reaches maximum count,

i.e. the counter is made to run for a time ‘t1‘ in this case 9999, on the next clock pulse
all digits go to 0000 and the counter activates the F/F to logic level ‘1’. This activates the switch
drive, ei is disconnected and –er is connected to the integrator. The integrator output will have
a negative slope which is constant, i.e. integrator output now decreases linearly to 0 volts.
Comparator output state changes again and locks the gate. The discharge time t2 is now
proportional to the input voltage. The counter indicates the count during time t2. When the

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

negative slope of the integrator reaches zero, the comparator switches to state 0 and the gate
closes, i.e. the capacitor C is now discharged with a constant slope. As soon as the comparator
input (zero detector) finds that eo, is zero, the counter is stopped. The pulses counted by the
counter thus have a direct relation with the input voltage.
During charging

During discharging

Advantages of Digital Voltmeter

• Since it does not involve reading from a pointer, it eliminates the human error that are
caused by reading at an angle. This means gross errors are now removed giving
precise results.
• They are more reliable and stable as compared to analog voltmeters which are
comparatively unreliable while making readings.
• The output from DVMs can be provided to memory devices for the purpose of
storage. This means that we can directly store the result of digital voltmeter in devices
like flip flops.
• We don’t require any extra manuals for using digital voltmeters as they are easy to
read and give precise and accurate readings.
• Digital voltmeters are more durable than analog voltmeters. We say this because they
provide accurate readings without being affected by external factors like atmosphere,
temperature and moisture.

Disadvantages of Digital Voltmeter

• They are comparatively fragile than Analog voltmeters and need to be handled with
care. They can get heated up on prolonged use and give wrong readings in that case.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

 • The speed of digital voltmeters is dependent on digitizing circuit being used .This might
reduce the operational speed of the voltmeters making them slow.
• There is a certain threshold value associated with digital voltmeter and exceeding that
value can damage the voltmeter without any prior warnings.
• In case of fluctuations in the output, digital voltmeter fails to detect them and can even
give wrong readings in that case giving wrong output.
• Due to the designing of digital voltmeter in a certain way, it becomes almost impossible
to measure transient voltage using this device. Hence measuring transient spikes through
this meter is a difficult process.

Applications of Digital Voltmeter

• It is used in laboratory and labs for determining accurate and precise voltage level across
various devices mainly resistors, diodes, capacitors in electronics circuits.
• Often times unknown current values are determined with the help of DVM. As DVM
helps to calculate voltage and once voltage level is known we can calculate the
corresponding current in the circuit.
• DVM are employed in for verification purposes like they are used in cathode ray tubes to
verify the accuracy of the findings and readings.
• They help in electrical maintenance and inspection of circuits.
• In certain circuits tree ammeter method and the three voltmeter method are used for
measuring of power. They are used to calculate the power factor of a specific load in
circuit.
• DVM is largely used for the purpose of circuit designing and prototype. They help in
measuring and verifying voltage levels at every stage. This is used for designing the
required circuit.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Digital Multimeter:

The input terminal is connected to a mode selector switch. The other input terminal is
a common terminal, generally referred as ground or negative terminal. The mode selector
switch has five positions. Each position of the switch is marked with its function.

In the first position of the switch the input goes to ohms select. ln this mode the input
to the multimeter is an unknown resistance. As the unknown resistance has to form a part of
the potential divider with the internal constant current source and range multiplier resistor, it is
shown to be connected to the buffer amplifier. At the same time the block constant current
generator is linked with the input terminal.

Therefore the buffer amplifier will amplify only the voltage that is developed across
the unknown resistance. The unknown resistance and the internal range resistor form a potential
divider using the current from the constant current source. Hence the resistance to voltage
conversion is complete and the D.V.M. reads the resistance.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

 The second position of the range switch is marked as Volts (A.C.). The input signal as
an unknown alternating voltage will go to the calibrated attenuator. The output of the attenuator
will go to the precision AC to DC converter. The output of the AC/DC convener will go, to the
DVM module. Selecting the proper range we can measure alternating voltage.

The third position of the switch is marked as current (A.C.). Hence the unknown current
is to be measured. The internal shunt carries unknown current and the voltage developed across
it will be converted in to steady voltage D.C.( voltage), by the AC/DC converter. As the
converter’s output is given to the D.V.M, module the current is displayed. Different shunts will
be selected by a range selector used with the shunt circuit.

In the fourth position the direct current can be measured. The unknown current flows
through the selected shunt (range selector is used). The voltage developed across this shunt
goes to D.V.M. module. So, in the fourth position of the mode selector, we will be able to
measure direct current. The fifth position is marked as volts D.C. The input is the unknown
voltage. This voltage passes through a calibrated attenuator.

The range selection is done. The output of the attenuator goes to the D. V M. Thus the
steady voltage or D.C. voltage can be measured. The other blocks that are not shown in the
above simple block diagram are auto range circuit, auto polarity circuit, power supply,
component testing circuit.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Q Meter:
A device that is used to measure the QF (quality factor) or storage factor or
quality factor of the circuit at radio frequencies is called the Q-meter.
In the oscillatory system, the QF is one of the essential parameters, used to illustrate
the relationships among the dissipated & stored energies. By using Q value, the overall
efficiency can be evaluated for the capacitors as well as coils used in RF applications. The
principle of this meter mainly depends on series resonance because the voltage drop is Q times
than the applied voltage across the capacitor/coil.

The total efficiency of capacitors & coils used for RF applications can be calculated with the
help of Q value.
At resonance
XL= XC and
EL= IXL,
EC = IXC,
E=IR
Where, E is an applied voltage
EC is the capacitor voltage
EL is an inductive voltage
XL is the inductive reactance
XC is the capacitive reactance
R is the coil resistance
I is circuit current

Thus, Q = XL/R
= Xc/R
=EC/E
From the above ‘Q’ equation, if an applied voltage is kept stable so that the voltage
across the capacitor can be calculated using a voltmeter to read ‘Q’ values directly. The circuit
diagram of the ‘Q’ meter is shown below. It is designed with an oscillator that uses the
frequency that ranges from 50 kHz – 50 MHz. and provides current to a shunt resistance
‘Rsh’with 0.02 ohms value. Here thermocouple meter is used to calculate the voltage across
the shunt resistance whereas an electronic voltmeter is used to calculate the voltage across the
capacitor. These meters can be calibrated to read ‘Q’ directly.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

 In the circuit, the energy of the oscillator can be supplied to the tank circuit. This circuit
can be adjusted for the resonance through unstable ‘C’ until the voltmeter reads the utmost
value. The o/p voltage of resonance is ‘E’, equivalent to ‘Ec’ is E = Q X e and Q = E/e. Because
‘e’ is known so the voltmeter is adjusted to read ‘Q’ value directly.
The coil is connected to the two test terminals of the instrument to determine the coil’s
inductance. This circuit is adjusted to resonance through changing either the oscillator
frequency otherwise the capacitance. Once the capacitance is changed, then the frequency of
the oscillator can be adjusted to a specified frequency & resonance is attained.
If the value of capacitance is already fixed to a preferred value, then the frequency of
the oscillator will be changed until resonance takes place. The reading of ‘Q’ on the o/p meter
is multiplied through the setting of an index to get the actual ‘Q’ value. The coil’s inductance
is calculated from known values of the coil frequency as well as the resonating capacitor.

Applications of the Q-meter

• It is used to measure the quality factor of the inductor.

• By using this meter, unknown impedance can be measured using a series or shunt
substitution method. If the impedance is small, the former technique is used and if it is
large, then the latter technique is used.
• It is used to measure small capacitor values.
• By using this, inductance, effective resistance, self-capacitance, and bandwidth can be
measured.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Signal Generator

Definition: The signal generator is an electronic device which induces the repeating and non-
repeating analogue or digital signals.

The signal generator is extensively used in troubleshooting, signal tracing, testing,

adjustment of amplifier response and alignment of radio and T.V circuit. The signal generator
has inbuilt modulation property. The amplitude and modulation property are very common in
signal generators.

The block diagram of the signal generator is shown in the figure below. The main part
of the signal generator is a VCO (voltage controlled oscillator). The input control voltage
determine the frequency of the VCO.

The frequency of the VCO is directly proportional to the control voltage. The signal
applied to the control input gives the frequency of the oscillator. The frequency modulated
signal is produced by the VCO when the audio input signal is applied across the control voltage.

The signal generator is also known as the generator which produces the tone, arbitrary and the
digital pattern waveforms. The signal generators generate the modified output signal along with
the other signal which is the main difference between the signal generator and the oscillator.

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When the signal produces the unmodulated signals, then they are said to be generating
continuous height wave signal. It produces a modulated signal in the form of square waves,
triangular waves, complex signals, etc.

For frequency modulation, the modulator circuit is placed after the VCO. The circuit changes
the VCO output voltages by producing the output AM signal.

The accuracy and stability are the two main property of the signals which is used to test the
receiver.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain
waveforms when the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called as an
Oscillograph.

Block Diagram of CRO

The CRO recruits the cathode ray tube and acts as a heat of the oscilloscope. In an
oscilloscope, the CRT produces the electron beam which is accelerated to a high velocity and
brings to the focal point on a fluorescent screen. Thus, the screen produces a visible spot where
the electron beam strikes with it. By detecting the beam above the screen in reply to the
electrical signal, the electrons can act as an electrical pencil of light which produces a light
where it strikes.

The low voltage is used for the heater of the electron gun to generate the electron beam.
A high voltage is required for the cathode ray tube to speed up the beam. The normal voltage
supply is necessary for other control units of the oscilloscope.

The horizontal and vertical plates are placed between the electron gun and the screen,
thus it can detect the beam according to the input signal. Just before detecting the electron beam
on the screen in the horizontal direction which is in X-axis a constant time-dependent rate, a
time base generator is given by the oscillator. The signals are passed from the vertical deflection

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plate through the vertical amplifier. Thus, it can amplify the signal to a level that will be
provided the deflection of the electron beam.

If the electron beam is detected in the X-axis and the Y-axis a trigger circuit is given for
synchronizing these two types of detections. Hence the horizontal deflection starts at the same
point as the input signal.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (Digital CRO)

Definition: The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a digital
waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the waveform
in the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the digital signal
processing techniques over that signal.
The maximum frequency measured on the digital signal oscilloscope depends upon two
things they are: sampling rate of the scope and the nature of the converter. The traces in DSO
are bright, highly defined, and displayed within seconds.

Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier, digitizer,
memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates,
cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock.

At first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input signal, then the analog
input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal. After amplification, the signal
is digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal stores in memory. The analyzer circuit
process the digital signal after that the waveform is reconstructed (again the digital signal is

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

converted into an analog form) and then that signal is applied to vertical plates of the cathode
ray tube (CRT).

The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input. The
vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis. The time base
circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going to generate the time base
signal which is a ramp signal. Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier,
and this horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate

The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals.
When the analog signal is properly converted into digital then the resolution of the A/D
converter will be decreased. When the input signals stored in analog store registers can be read
out at a much slower rate by the A/D converter, then the digital output of the A/D converter
stored in the digital store, and it allows operation up to 100 mega samples per second. This is
the working principle of a digital storage oscilloscope.

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan

Flowchart for Rudder control

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Flowchart for Ship collision prevention

VELS UNIVERSITY-School of Maritime Studies- Compiled by J.Chenguttuvan