Western Cape Education Department

Directorate: Curriculum FET

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
(Electronics & Digital Electronics

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE FOR

SWITCHING CIRCUITS

2024

Grade 12

SWITCHING CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

A multivibrator with two stable
states and needs two external
Bistable multivibrator
trigger signals to change the
output state.
A multivibrator with only one Always refer to the output states
stable output state and only when asked to define a
Monostable multivibrator need one external signal to multivibrator, do not only state for
change its output state for a example that it has two switches, or
certain duration.. only one input, or no inputs.
A multivibrator with no stable
output states and do not require
Astable multivibrator
any external triggers to change
its state.
VCC indicates that a battery is From elementary circuit analysis,
connected between point B and
ground. 𝑅2
𝑉𝐴 = × 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
A indicates the voltage between
point A and ground. 1) When R2 increases or R1
decreases, VA increases.
The voltage at point A in this
circuit is designated by VA and at 2) When 𝑅2 = 0, 𝑉2 = 0. In other
B as VB words, point A is shorted to
ground.
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉2
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 3) When 𝑅2 → ∞, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
4)
 If nothing was connected at point A,
V2 would have been floating and
R1 is called a pull-up resistor.
could jump up and down and be
undefined or it may be defined by
It sets 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , but also allows
the circuit to which A is connected.
V2 to be changed by an
externally connected voltage
Electrical noise in the environment
signal at point A.
would have been able to change its
value.

When S1 is open,
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶

When S1 is closed,
𝑉𝐴 = 0

This voltage may refer to an input

voltage, or the voltage at any point
of a circuit.
The voltage at which the output
Trigger voltage
of a circuit will change state. This voltage may depend on the
input voltage, or the output voltage,
or the voltage across a charging
capacitor.
A circuit such as an astable
multivibrator may have no resting
The condition of a circuit when
Resting condition condition, as its output state will
no input voltage is applied.
change constantly even though
there is no input voltage.
When the power supply and all
Zero state condition signal sources to a circuit is
switched off.

When a voltage is applied such The bottom plate of the capacitor

that will always change by the amount
𝑉𝐴 = +15𝑉 and B is connected that the top plate changes at the
to ground, 𝑉𝐵 = 0, the capacitor instant that the change occurs.
will charge to +15V.
In this case, the top plate decrease
If VA suddenly changes to -15V, by Δ𝑉𝐴 = +15 − (−15) = −30𝑉,
VB will drop to -30V as the thus the bottom plate will also
capacitor voltage cannot change decrease by 30V.
instantaneously.
Initially 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 0, and 𝑉𝐴 = 0. Reminder: When the time constant
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 is very short, the capacitor
When VIN suddenly changes to a will charge rapidly, when it is large,
value of +V, VA will also change the capacitor will take long to
by the same amount +V and a charge.
𝑉 𝑉
current 𝐼𝐼𝑁 = 𝑅𝐼𝑁 = 𝑅 will flow.
As the capacitor charges to +V, To generate a very sharp impulse at
the current will decrease and VA A, the time constant must be small.
will decrease to zero.
Short or long refers to in
When the time constant comparison with the duration of the
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 is short, this will happen input signal which is normally a
rapidly and an impulse will be pulse.
created at A.
Note that when 𝑅 → ∞, in other
When VIN changes to 0V, the left words an open circuit, A will simply
hand plate voltage decreases by follow VIN, or 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁 .
+V, and the rigt hand plate also,
making it -V. The capacitor A: Long time constant
discharges through R and VIN B: Medium time constant
until its voltage is zero. C: Very short time constant
Note: Using a push button to A: Long time constant
provide a trigger signal is
different from using a pulse such When S1 is pressed, 𝑉𝐴 = +𝑉, the
as in the previous section. The capacitor charges slightly, but
capacitor cannot discharge as before it reaches +V, the button is
there is no discharge path. released. VB decreases, but is still
above zero when the button is
C: Short time constant released. When the button is
released, 𝑉𝐵 drops to zero, and VA
When S1 is pressed, 𝑉𝐴 = +𝑉, drops by the same amount.
and 𝑉𝐵 = +𝑉 the capacitor
charges rapidly to +V, the Note that when R4 is absent (open
current decreases and VB circuit from B to ground), the
decreases to zero. When the following will happen;
button is released, 𝑉𝐴 = +𝑉 and
𝑉𝐵 = 0. When S1 is pressed, 𝑉𝐴 = +𝑉, and
𝑉𝐵 = +𝑉. As there is no path for
B: Medium time constant current to flow to charge the
capacitor, VA and VB will return to
When S1 is pressed, 𝑉𝐴 = +𝑉, zero when the button is released.
and 𝑉𝐵 = +𝑉, the capacitor
charges, but before it reaches
+V, the button is released. VB
decreases, but is still above zero
when the button is released.
When the button is released, 𝑉𝐵
drops to zero, and VA drops by
the same amount.
 This is the general symbol for a
A voltage source has zero internal
voltage supply and may indicate
resistance. When the value of
a battery or a sine wave or any
𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 0, it means that point A is
other waveform (triangular,
effectively connected to ground.
pulse etc).

An op-amp circuit has infinite The output of the op-amp will

gain, 𝐴𝑉 → ∞ when it is used in saturate, meaning that it will attain
open-loop configuration or with only one of two maximum values
positive feedback. close to VCC and VEE.

Positive feedback means that a ±𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = ±15𝑉

portion of the output voltage is
fed back to the non-inverting When 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 , or 𝑉+ > 𝑉− , the
input. output

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = +𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = +15𝑉.

When 𝑉𝐴 < 𝑉𝐵 , or 𝑉+ < 𝑉− , the

output

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = −15𝑉.

PRACTICAL BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

1. Calculate the trigger voltages for this circuit.

𝑉𝑇𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐺𝐸𝑅 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑅6
= × (±𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 )
𝑅5 + 𝑅6
10 000
=± × 15
10 000 + 1000
= ±7,5𝑉

2. Deduce the voltage at B after switch S1 is pressed for the first time.
As the voltage on the left plate of the capacitor C2 immediately becomes
15V when S1 is pressed, the voltage on the right plate must be 𝑉𝐵 = 15𝑉 as
the capacitor voltage cannot change instantly. If the time constant 𝜏 =
𝑅4 𝐶2 is much shorter than the time that the switch is held down, the
capacitor will charge very fast, VB will decrease to 0V and VA will be15V.
3. Determine the value of VOUT after S1 is pressed for the first time.
As the voltage at C (at the non-inverting input of the op amp) will always be
less than the voltage at B (at the inverting input of the op-amp), whether
negative or positive, due to the voltage divider action of R5 and R6, 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 =
−𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = −15𝑉.

4. Deduce the voltage at B when S2 is pressed some time after S1 was

pressed.
When S2 is pressed, 𝑉𝐴 = −15𝑉, the voltage on the left hand plate
decreases by 30V, thus the voltage at B must also decrease by 30V, in other
words, 𝑉𝐵 = −30𝑉.

5. Now, determine the value of VOUT after S2 is pressed.

As VB is much smaller than VC, 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = +𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = +15𝑉.

6. Now, determine the voltage at B if S1 is pressed again.

The voltage at A changes from -15V to +15V which is an increase of 30V, it
means the voltage at B must also increase by 30V, thus 𝑉𝐵 = +30𝑉.

As 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 = −15𝑉

7. Draw timing diagrams for VA, VB and VOUT.