Introduction to

BASIC ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

Textbook for I B.Tech I Semester

Dr. N V Sarathbabu Goriparti

 Contents
S.NO UNIT NO. NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE. NO
1 CHAPTER -1 DC AND AC CIRCUITS 1-16
2 CHAPTER -2 MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 17-34
3 CHAPTER -3 ENERGY RESOURCES, ELECTRICITY BILL & SAFETY MEASURES 35-45
4 CHAPTER -4 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 46-65
5 CHAPTER -5 BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTTAION 66-77
6 CHAPTER -6 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 78-89
 CHAPTER – I
DC AND AC CIRCUITS
1 Define Current, Voltage, Power and Energy

Current, I
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
Q dQ
I 
t dt
Units: Ampere
Voltage, V
The energy required to bring the charge
from one place to other.
w dw
V 
q dq
Units: Volt

Power, P
Work done per unit time is called as
power.
dw
P
dt
dw dQ
P 
dt dQ
dw dQ
P   VI
dQ dt
P  VI
Units: Watt
Energy, W
Electrical energy is the product of
electrical power and time.
dw
P
dt
dw  P dt
w   P dt
Units: Wh (Watt-hour)

1
2 Derive equivalent resistance when two resistances are connected in
i) Series and ii) Parallel

Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel

V  V1  V2 I  I1  I 2

V  IR1  IR2 I
V V

R1 R2
V  I  R1  R2 
I 1 1 
  
V V  R1 R2 
  R1  R2 
I
1 1 1 
  
Req   R1  R2  Req  R1 R2 

R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2

3 Find the equivalent resistance for the following network

2
Solution:

Here, from the above network 4Ω, 5Ω and 3Ω are in connected series, so the resistance b/w a &b is Rab =
(4+5+3) =12Ω

Now, from the above network 4Ω and 12Ω are connected in parallel, so the resistance b/w a and b is
Rab=(4x12)/(4+12)=48/16=3Ω

Now, from the above network 3Ω and 3Ω are in series, so so the resistance b/w a and b is Rab = (3+3) =
6Ω
3
Now, from the above network 6Ω and 6Ω are in parallel, so the resistance b/w a and b is
Rab=(6x6)/(6+6)=36/12=3Ω

Now, from the above network 2Ω, 3Ω and 1Ω are in series, so the resistance b/w a and b is Rab=(2+3+1) =
6Ω.

4
4 State and explain Ohm’s Law. And write down its limitations.
Ohm’s Law
The current flowing through the given conductor is
directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the resistance of the
conductor.

V
I
R

Limitations of Ohm’s Law

1. It is applicable to linear elements only.
2. It is applicable at normal temperature and pressure (NTP) conditions only.

5 State and explain Kirchhoff’s Laws with example.

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of currents at a given Node is equals to zero.
As from the figure

i  i1  i2  i3
i  i1  i2  i3  0
Example: The current Ix is 8A.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of voltages in a closed
circuit is equals to zero.

Vx  V1  V2  V3  Vy  0

5
6 Find the currents, I1, I2 and I3 in the given network using mesh analysis. And state current flowing
through each branch.

Apply KVL for loop 1

10  2 I1  6  I1  I 2   0

8I1  6 I 2  10
8I1  6 I 2  0 I 3  10 (1)
Apply KVL for loop 2

4 I 2  8  I 2  I 3   6  I 2  I1   0
6 I1  18I 2  8I 3  0 (2)
Apply KVL for loop 3

12 I3  20  8  I3  I 2   0
8I 2  20 I 3  20
0 I1  8I 2  20 I 3  20 (3)
By solving equations (1), (2) and (3), we can get

I1  1.24 A
I 2  0.03 A
I 3  1.01A

6
7 Find the current flowing through each branch for the given circuit

Solution:
Using Mesh Analysis
Apply KVL for first loop ABCDEA

15  5I1  10  I1  I 2   10  0
15  5I1  10 I1  10 I 2  10  0
15I1  10 I 2  5 (1)

Apply KVL for second loop CFGEDC

6 I 2  4 I 2  10  10  I 2  I1   0
10 I 2  10  10 I 2  10 I1  0
10 I1  20 I 2  10 (2)

By solving equations (1) and (2),

I1  1A
I 2  1A
Results:
The current flows through 15 V battery = I1 = 1ampere.
The current flows through 5Ω resistor = I1 = 1ampere.
The current flows through 15 V battery = (I1 – I2) = 0 ampere.
The current flows through 10Ω resistor = (I1 – I2) = 0 ampere.
The current flows through 6Ω resistor = I2 = 1ampere.
The current flows through 4Ω resistor = I2 = 1ampere.
7
8 Find the node voltages, Va and Vb in the given network using nodal analysis.

Apply KCL at Node ‘a’ Apply KCL at Node ‘b’

i2   i6   i4   0 i4   i8  i12   0
Va  10 Va Va  Vb Vb  Va Vb Vb  20
  0   0
2 6 4 4 8 12
Va 10 Va Va Vb Vb Va Vb Vb 20
    0     0
2 2 6 4 4 4 4 8 12 12
1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1   20 
    a  Vb  5
V    Va     Vb   
2 6 4 4  4  4 8 12   12 

0.91Va  0.25Vb  5 (1) 0.25Va  0.458Vb  1.66 (2)

By solving Equations (1) and (2), one can get

Va  7.63 V
Vb  7.79 V

8
9 State and explain Super position theorem with an example.
Statement of Super Position Theorem:
“In a linear bilateral active network, the response at any branch when all sources acting simultaneously
is = the algebraic sum of responses when individual sources alone.”
Example: Find the current flowing through 6 ohm resistor using Super position theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: To find the current flowing through the 6Ω with V1  10V & V2  20V i.e. I

Apply KCL at Node ‘a’

i2   i6   i4   0
Va  10 Va Va  20
  0
2 6 4
Va 10 Va Va 20
    0
2 2 6 4 4
 1 1 1   10 20 
Va        
2 6 4  2 4 
 11 
Va    10
 12 
Va  10.9 V
Va
 I 6  I   1.81 A
6
I  1.81 A

9
 Step 2: To find the current flowing through the 6Ω with V1  10V & V2  0V i.e. I1
Apply KCL at Node ‘a’
Va  10 Va Va
  0
2 6 4
Va 10 Va Va
   0
2 2 6 4
 1 1 1  10
Va     
2 6 4 2
 Va  5.45 V
Va
 I 6  I 1   0.909 A
6

I 1  0.909 A
Step 3: To find the current flowing through the 6 ohm resistor with V1  0 V and V2  20 i.e. I11

Apply KCL at Node ‘a’

Va Va Va  20
  0
2 6 4
Va Va Va 20
   0
2 6 4 4
 1 1 1  20
Va     
2 6 4 4

Va  5.45 V
Va
 I 6   I 11   0.909 A
6

I 11  0.909 A
Step 4: Verification of Super Position Theorem

I  I 1  I 11  0.909  0.909  1.81 A

10
1
Write a short note on Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor
0
1. Resistor: A resistor is a passive electrical component that
limits or regulates the electric current in a circuit.

Resistance:
Definition Symbol Unit
The resistance offered by the resistor
is the ratio of voltage to the current.
V Ohm
R
I

2. Inductor: An inductor is a passive electrical component

that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric
current flows through it.

It opposes sudden changes in current.

dI
V L
dt

Inductance:
Definition Symbol Unit
The inductance offered by a given inductor is
the ratio of flux linkages per ampere current.
N
Henry
L
I

3. Capacitor: A capacitor is a passive component that

stores electric charge when voltage is applied across it.
It can resist sudden changes in voltage across its plates.
dV
I C
dt

Capacitance:
Definition Symbol Unit
The capacitance offered by the given capacitor
is the ratio of electric charge per unit potential.
Q Farad
C
V

11
1 Define the terms (i) Frequency (ii) Time Period (iii) RMS Value (iv) Peak Value (v) Average Value
1 With the help of a waveform

Frequency, f
Number of cycles per second is called frequency.
Time period, T
The time taken to complete one cycle is called time
period.

Average or Mean value

The algebraic sum of all instantaneous values over period of time is called average value.

T
1
I avg   I dt
T 0
Root mean square (RMS) value
It is the DC equivalent of AC current.

T
1
I rms  
T 0
I 2 dt

Peak value
The maximum value of the given alternating quantity is called Peak value. It is denoted as Im.
Peak factor
The ratio of Peak value to the RMS value is called
Peak factor.
Peak Value
Peak Factor =
RMS Value
Form factor
The ratio of RMS value to the Average value is
called Form factor.
RMS Value
Form Factor =
Avg. Value

12
1
Derive the Average value, Root mean square value for Sine waveform.
2
Average value

1
I avg   I sin  d
 0
m


Im
I avg 
 
0
sin d

Im
  cos  0

I avg 

2Im
I avg 

Root mean square (RMS) value
2
1
I rms    I msin  d
2

2 0

2
Im2
I rms 
2 
0
sin 2 d

1  cos 2
sin 2 
2
2
Im2  1  cos 2 
I rms 
2 
0

 2
 d

2
Im2  sin 2 
I rms    
4  2 0

Im2
I rms  2
4
Im
I rms 
2

13
1
Derive the voltage and current relationships in R, L, C elements and draw it’s Phasor diagrams
3

1. Resistor Circuit: 2. Inductor Circuit 3. Capacitor Circuit

V  Vm sin t V  Vm sin t V  Vm sin t

V Vm sin t V L
dI
Q  CV
I 
R R dt
Q  CVm sin t
V
I  I m sin t dI  dt
L
I
dQ
Vm sin t dt
dI  dt
L d
I CVm sin t
Vm dt
I  sin t dt
L I  CVm  cos t
Vm
I  sin t dt  
L cos   sin    
2 
Vm   cos t 
I    
L   I  CVm sin   t 
2 
Vm
I  cos t I m  CVm
L

   
sin      cos  I  I m sin  t  
2   2

Vm  
I  sin   t 
L  2 

sin      sin 

Vm  
I sin  t  
L  2

 
I  I m sin  t  
 2

14
 Phasor Diagram: Phasor Diagram: Phasor Diagram:
From voltage and current From voltage and current From voltage and current
equations, for a given equations, for a given equations, for a given
resistor, the current is inductor, the current is 90 capacitor, the current is 90
inphase with the voltage. degrees laging with degrees leading with
respect to the voltage. respect to the voltage.

1 Define the following terms (i) Active Power , (ii) Reactive Power, (iii) Apparent Power , (iv) Power Factor And
4 also draw a power triangle
(i) Active Power (P)
The product of voltage and active component of current is known as active power.

Active Power (P)  VI Cos 

Units: KW-kilo watt
(ii) Reactive Power (Q)
The product of voltage and reactive component of current is known as reactive power.
Units: KVAR-kilo volt-ampere-reactive

Reactive Power (Q)  VI Sin 

(iii) Apparent Power (S)
The vector sum of both active and reactive powers. It is also called complex power.

Apparent Power (S )  VI
Units: KVA-kilo-volt-ampere

15
 (iv) Power factor
Power factor: it is the ratio of real value of impedance to Power factor: it is the ratio of active
the total value of impedance. power to the total power.

P
cos  
R cos  
Z S

Power Traingle: It consists of active power (P) on real axis, reactive power on imaginary axis and apparent
power (S) as a vector sum of P and Q.

16
 CHAPTER-II
MACHINES AND MEASURERING INSTRUMENTS
1 Write a short note on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction and derive the expression for e.m.f according to Faraday.

Faraday’s Experiment:

According to Faraday’s experiment when the

Magnet Coil Induced EMF in the coil
Fixed Fixed No (zero)
Fixed Moving Yes
Moving Fixed Yes

Magnetic field  No induced emf

Changing magnetic field  induced emf
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s First law (How Electromotive force (EMF) is induced across a coil?)
d
Whenever a Time varying magnetic flux linked with a stationary coil, EMF is induced in the coil.
dt
17
Faraday’s Second law (How much EMF is induced?)
The induced EMF in the coil is directly proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux.
 d 
e   
 dt 
 d 
e  N  
 dt 
That negative sign indicates that the result is always opposite to the cause according to the Lenz’s Law.
For a given Transformer the induced EMF across the Primary & Secondary is given by

 d 
e1   N1  
 dt 

 d 
e2   N 2  
 dt 

18
2 Explain the construction, working principle of a DC Generator.

DC GENERATOR
Motor Generator Set Construction of a DC Generator
1. Stator 2. Rotor

Yoke Armature Drum

Field Poles Armature Winding

Field Winding Comutator

Shaft

Ball Bearings

Basic Parts of DC Generator

1. Stator
The Stator is the stationary part of a DC machine.
It is an assembly of a yoke, field poles, and field
windings.

2. Rotor

The Rotor is the Rotating Part of DC Machine.

It is an assembly of an Armature drum, an Armature
Winding, a Commutator, a Ball Bearing and a Shaft.

19
S.No. Part Made Purpose
1 Yoke Iron/ Steel It provides Mechanical support for the machine.It carries Field Poles
2 Field Poles Steel Produce required magnetic flux
3 Field Winding Copper Field Windings carries Field Current
4 Armature Drum Steel It is a Cylindrical Core It has Slots to house the Armature Winding.
5 Armature Winding Copper AC voltage is induced in the Armature Winding.
6 Commutator Copper It Collects the AC Voltage from the Armature and Converts into Pulsating DC Voltage.
7 Brushes Copper To collect the DC current
8 Shaft Steel It carries the whole assembly of Rotor.
9 Ball Bearing Sttel It facilitate the Rotor to move

Commutator Assembly Brush Assemply

20
Working Principle: Whenever a rotating armature conductor placed in a stationary magnetic field, an e.m.f is
induced in that armature conductor.

The direction of this e.m.f or current is given by Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

If we hold our Right Hand’s Thumb Finger, Index Finger and Central Finger Mutually Perpendicular to Each Other,

Thumb Finger gives the direction of motion of the conductor.

Index Finger depicts the direction of Magnetic Field and
Central Finger represents the direction of Current flowing through the conductor.

21
3 Explain the construction, working principle of a DC Motor.

DC MOTOR
Function of DC Motor Construction of DC Motor

Same as the DC Generator

(Note: Please Refer DC generator Construction)

DC Motor Converts the DC Supply into a Mechanical Force

Working Principle of DC Motor:

Whenever a Current Carrying Armature Conductor is placed in a
Stationary Magnetic Field, the Torque will be developed in the
Armature.
The direction of this torque is given by Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.
If we hold our Left Hand’s Central Finger, Index Finger and
Thumb Finger, and Mutually Perpendicular to Each Other,
Central Finger represents the direction of Current flowing through
the Armature Conductor,
Index Finger depicts the direction of Magnetic Field and
Thumb Finger gives the direction of Torque.

22
4 Explain the construction and working principle of Single phase transformer.

TRANSFORMER
Function of Transformer Construction of Transformer
A transformer is a static AC machine used for transmitting power from one circuit to
another.
Transformer is used to step up or step down the voltage (or current) value without
changing frequency and power.
Transformer

Core Two windings

Basic Parts of transformer Transformer

23
 S.No. Component Made Purpose
The Core carries both Primary and Secondary Windings.
When the AC Source is connected to the Primary Winding, Time Varying Magnetic Flux
Laminated
1 Core (Alternating Magnetic Flux) is produced in the Core.
Silicon steel
The Core is laminated to reduce Eddy Current Losses.
Heat released from the core is called core loss.
A Transformer mainly consists of two windings namely, the Primary Winding and the
Secondary Winding.
The Winding that is connected to the Supply is called the Primary Winding.
2 Windings Copper
The Winding that is connected to the Load is called the Secondary Winding.
They carries Current.
The Heat released from the Windings is called Copper loss.
Working Principle of Transformer
Transformers work on Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction Principle.
 When an Alternating Voltage is applied to the Primary,
Alternating Current flows through the Primary. This
Alternating Current magnetizes the Core and produces an
Alternating magnetic flux.
 Now, this Alternating magnetic flux gets linked to the
Primary and Secondary Windings; an emf gets induced in
the primary and secondary windings according to Faraday’s
Laws.

24
5 Explain the construction and working principle of Three phase induction motor.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Function of Three Phase Induction Motor Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor
It converts Three Phase AC suppy into Mechanical
Force. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

STATOR ROTOR

SQUERREL CAGE ROTOR

SLIP RING / WOUND ROTOR

Squerrel Cage Rotor Slip Ring Rotor with External resistance

25
The essential parts of Three Phase Induction Motor are Stator and Rotor.
S. NO. PART Actual Figure EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The Stator is Cylindrical Core
with Slots in its Inner Periphery.
The Stator having Three Phase
1 Stator
Winding and it is connected to
Three Phase Supply.

In this type, the Rotor Core is

Cylindrical in shape with Slots to
Squirrel Cage Rotor
2 carry Copper Bars. These Copper
bars are shorted with the help of
Two Copper Rings.
In this type of Rotor, a Balanced
Three Phase Winding is wound
on the Rotor. These Rotor
Windings are connected to Three
Slip Ring Rotor
Phase External Resistance
through Slip Rings and Brushes.
This type of connection facilitates a
very high toque.

26
Working of a Three Phase Induction Motor

1. Whenever a 3-Phase AC Supply is given to the 3-Phase Stator Windings of an Induction motor, a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF),
1 is produced as shown in Figure a.

2. This RMF cuts the stationary Rotor Conductors; hence an emf will be induced in the Rotor Conductors, according to Faraday’s
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction Principle. This emf causes a current to flow in the Rotor Conductors I 2 as shown in Figure b.
3. Now, the Rotor is a Current Carrying Conductor and it is in the Rotating Magnetic Field produced by the Stator. Whenever a
Current Carrying Conductor placed in a Magnetic Field, Torque will be developed in the Conductor. So Torque will be developed
in the Rotor as shown in Figure c.
The Torque developed in the Rotor i.e. in the Motor is given by,

  K1I 2 cos2
  Torque developed in the motor (N.m)
K  Constant 1  RMF from the Stator (wb) I 2  Rotor current (A) cos  2  Rotor Power factor

27
6 Explain the construction and working of an alternator.

ALTERNATOR
Function of an Alternator Construction of an Alternator
Which convers Mechanical Energy into Three Phase Electrical Voltage.
ALTERNATOR

STATOR ROTOR

CYLINDRICAL ROTOR

SALIENT POLE ROTOR

Alternator Diagram and its Outputs

28
Type of Alternator Equivalent Circuit Description

 In cylindrical type rotor a

steel cylinder with slots
on its outer periphery
having copper bars is
used.
Cylindrical Alternator  Due cylindrical structure,
the rotor comes with
smaller diameter.
 Runs at high speed
(1500-3000rpm)
 Used in thermal and
nuclear power plants

 In salient pole type rotor

steel poles are projected
over the surface of the
rotor.
 Due to projected poles,
the rotor having large
Salient Pole Alternator
diameter.
 Runs at less speed
(100-1500 rpm).
 Used in hydro-electric
power plants.

Working Principle of Alternator:

Alternator works on Faraday’s principle. Whenever a rotating magnetic field cuts the stationary conductor, an EMF will be induced in
that stationary conductor.
29
7 Explain in detail about Wheatstone bridge and also give an expression for bridge balance condition

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Construction of a Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Diagram of Wheatstone Bridge
If P/Q=R/S then the Galvanometer current Ig = 0
If Ig = 0
Apply KVL to Loop ABDA,
P (I1 )  R (I 2 )  0
P (I1 )  R (I 2 ) (1)
Apply KVL to Loop BCDB,
Q (I1  0)  S (I 2  0)  0
Q (I1 )  S (I 2 ) (2)
By taking (1)/(2)
P R

Q S

Working of a Wheatstone Bridge Advantages:

Wheatstone Bridge is used for Measurement of Unknown Resistance
Accurate measurement of resistance
Let us consider a Bridge having four resistive arms P, Q, R and S
respectively. Able to measure very low values of resistance also with high accuracy.
Let P be the Unknown resistance to be measured.
Disadvantages:
Q and R are the Fixed resistances. And
S is the Adjustable resistance. Accuracy of the measurement depends on the accuracy of
Set the galvanometer current to zero by adjusting the value of S.
Galvanometer.
When Ig = 0, the bridge is balanced. And, P/Q=R/S
Therefore, the Unknown resistance is A wrong galvanometer causes error in the measurement.
R Applications:
PQ
S Used in Temperature and Strain Sensors

30
8 Give a detailed not on construction of PMMC Instruments. Draw it’s sketch

PMMC INSTRUMENTS
Construction of PMMC Schematic View of PMMC Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet System
This System consists of a simple Horse shoe shaped Permanent
magnet (alnico). Two ends of the magnet North pole and South pole
respectively. These two magnet poles create a uniform magnetic
field between them.
2. Moving Coil System
Between the two magnetic poles there is a coil (copper)
wound on a light metal frame (aluminum). This light metal
frame is surmounted that it can rotate freely in the field.
Two phosphor bronze conductive springs are attached at the
upper and lower portion of the coil as control springs.
3. Pointer and Recording system
One Pointer is attached to the coil as shown.

Working Principle of PMMC Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of PMMC Instruments

Whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it Advantages:
experiences a force. Easy to use
As soon as there is a current in the coil, the deflecting torque, Td is Simple in construction
produced due to electromagnetic effect. The controlling torque, Tc Consumes less power
is provided by two phosphor bronze conductive springs. Gives linear deflection
The deflecting torque is directly proportional to the current through Disadvantages:
the coil Aging of permanent magnets
Td  I (1) Applications:
PMMC instruments are used to measure DC current or voltages only.
The controlling torque is directly proportional to the deflection of the
pointer
Tc   (2)
At equilibrium, Td=Tc Hence,
 I
31
9 Explain about the working principle of Moving Iron Instruments with help of relevant diagrams.

MI INSTRUMENTS
Construction of Attraction type MI Instrument Schematic Diagram for Attraction Type MI Instruments
Moving Iron instruments are of two types 1. Attraction type 2.
Repulsion type
The attraction type MI instrument consists of a fixed coil and a
movable iron vane.
1. Fixed coil system
The current to be measured flows through the fixed coil and
produces a magnetic field around it.
2. Movable Iron system
The iron vane is surmounted that it can move freely in the
magnetic field.
Two phosphor bronze conductive springs are attached at the
upper and lower portion of the Iron vane as control springs.
3. Pointer and Recording system
One Pointer is attached to the vane as shown.
Working Principle: Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of MI Instruments
As soon as there is a current in the fixed coil, the coil acts like an Advantages:
electromagnet and it will attracts the iron vane. Hence the Used for both AC and DC measurements
deflecting torque, Td is produced due to electromagnetic effect. The Low cost
controlling torque, Tc is provided by two phosphor bronze Disadvantages:
conductive springs. Nonlinear scale
Applications:
MI instruments are used for both AC and DC measurements

32
 Construction of Repulsion type MI Instrument Schematic Diagram for Repulsion Type MI Instruments
The repulsion type MI instrument consists of a fixed coil
and two iron vanes.

1. Fixed coil system: The current to be measured flows

through the fixed coil and produces a magnetic field
around it. The fixed vane is also connected to coil.

2. Movable Iron system: There are two iron vanes,

one is fixed vane and the other is a movable vane.
The fixed vane is connected to coil. The movable
vane is surmounted that it can move freely in the
magnetic field. Two phosphor bronze conductive
springs are attached at the upper and lower portion of
the movable vane as control springs.

3. Pointer and Recording system

One Pointer is attached to the movable vane as
shown.

Working Principle

T I
As soon as there is a current in the fixed coil, the coil acts 2
like an electromagnet and it will magnetize both the iron
vanes in the same direction. When the two iron vanes d (1)
magnetized with same polarity, a repulsive force is exists in The controlling torque is directly proportional to the deflection of the pointer
between the two vanes. And the movable vane moves away
from the fixed vane. Hence the deflecting torque, Td is T 
c (2)
produced. The controlling torque, Tc is provided by two
At equilibrium, Td=Tc Hence,
phosphor bronze conductive springs.

I
The deflecting torque is directly proportional to square of 2
the current flows through the coil.

33
1 Write down applications of Electrical Machines.
0

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

DC GENERATOR DC MOTOR TRANSFORMER 3 PHAGE IM ALTERNATOR
DC SHUNT GEN: DC SHUNT MOTOR: POWER T/F SLIP RING IM: MARINE ALT :
Constant voltage Used in Constant Speed  Voltage Regulation Used for high torque  Marines (ships)
applications: Applications like Applications
 Auxiliary Power  Drilling Machine DISTRIBUTION T/F  Cranes BRUSHLESS ALT :
Supply  Accelerators
 Lathe Machine  Power Distribution  Electrical Power
 Battery Charging  Elevators
 Lighting  Fans  Hoists Plants.
 Constant Voltage  Conveyors
 Blowers TRACTION T/F
Source.  Compressors
 Centrifugal  Railway Electrification  Crushers DIESEL ELECTRIC ALT:
Pumps  Turbines  Locomotives
 Generators
ISOLATION T/F  Winders
 Medical Equipment AUTOMOTIVE ALT:
SQUIRREL CAGE IM
DC SERIES GEN: DC SERIES MOT APP:  Automobiles
 Voltage Booster Used in High Torque CTs AND PTs Used for low torque
applications:
Applications like  Safety and Protection  Lathe machinery
 Trains  Blowers and pumps
 Home appliances
 Cranes AUDIO T/F
like refrigerators,
 Hoists  Impedance Matching compressors, and
mixers.
 Trolley
 Conveyors

34
 CHAPTER - 3
ENERGY RESOURCES, ELECTRICITY BILL & SAFETY MEASURES
1 Distinguish the conventional and Non-conventional energy sources and also give some examples.

Energy Sources

Conventional Non-conventional

Coal Sun (Solar Energy)

Wind (Wind Energy)

Petrolium

Natural Water (Hydro Energy)

Gas

Tides (Tidel Energy)

Uranium

Earth (Geo-Thermal
Energy)

Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional sources of energy

These sources of energy are not abundant These sources of energy are abundant in nature.
(present in limited quantity).

Examples: coal, petroleum, natural gas, Examples: solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, tidal
uranium etc. energy, geo-thermal biomass energy etc.

They are non-renewable. They are renewable.

They pollute the environment. Do not pollute the environment.

They have been in use for a long time. They have been in use for the last few years.

They are used at a higher rate. They are used at a lower rate.

They can be exhausted completely due to They cannot be exhausted completely.

over-consumption.

They are commonly used for industrial and They are used commonly used for household purposes.
commercial purposes.

They are expensive They are inexpensive.

35
2 Give a detailed note on operation of conversion of Solar Energy to Electricity.

The main components of the solar power are;

1. Sun: Sun gives required light and heat energy.
2. Solar panels: Solar panels are the photo-voltic panels/ PV panels. They are used to convert sunlight into
electricity. The output from the solar panels is DC in nature. But in our homes we use AC. So to convert
DC into AC we use inverters.
3. Inverter: Inveters are used to convert DC voltage into useful AC voltage
4. Bidirectional meter: The inveter output is given to the bidirectional meter. It will send the AC power to
the utilities like fan, light, computer etc. in our home. Bidirectional meter does either of three things:
 If the generated power is more than the connected load, the remaining power will be transferred to
the power grid.
 If the generated power is less than the connected load, the required power will be drawn from the
power grid.
 If the generated power is equals to the connected load, it just power the utilities.
5. Grid: Grid is point, from where electricity is either given or taken.
OPERATION:
The sun provides the light energy. PV panels convert the light energy into DC power. Inverters convert DC
power into AC power. A bidirectional meter manages the AC power as mentioned above.

36
3 Give a detailed sketch and explain about the operation of Hydroelectric power plant
Hydroelectric Power Plant
Hydropower refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity. It is considered a
renewable energy source because the water cycle is constantly renewed by the sun. One of the first uses of
hydropower was grinding grains and water lifting from the well, but today modern hydro plants produce
electricity using turbines and generators.

The main parts of the hydroelectric power plant are

1. Resorvoir: a water storage.
2. Dam: a large barrier built across a river to create a reservoir.
3. Penstock: a pipe line that directs water flow from the reservoir to the turbine.
4. Turbine: a rotating wheel that converts forced water (from the penstock) into mechanical energy.
5. Alternator: an AC generator that converts mechanical energy (from the turbine) into electrical
energy.
6. Power Transformer: a static AC machine that steps up the voltage level for efficient transmission.
7. Control room: a place from which one can monitor and manage the power plant operations.
8. Draft tube: a pipe line that collects the discharged water from the turbine and back to the river.
9. Transmission lines: HT lines used for power transmission.
10. Surge Tank: a room for the back water during sudden opening and closing of inlet value.

OPERATION:
The reservoir water head has the potential energy (PE = mgH). When water flows through a penstock, the potential
energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy (KE = 1/2 mV2). The water, with kinetic energy, strikes the turbine
and converts into mechanical energy. An alternator is used to convert this mechanical energy into electricity.

37
4 Explain the working principle and operation of Windmill with a neat diagram

The main parts of the wind turbine are

1. Turbine: The wind runs through the turbine blades;
- Thus decreasing the air pressure on one side of the blade
- This causes a difference in air pressure through both sides of the blade
- Creating a force on the blades.
- The intensity of the force rotates the turbine.
But the slow rotation speed of the turbine is not enough to produce electricity. For this reason, a Gear box is
connected in between the turbine and the generator.
2. Gear box: A gear box is a mechanical device that is used to change the speed or torque. In a wind turbine, it will
take the low speed of the turbine as the input and convert it to high speed.
3. Generator: The generator is used to convert the aerodynamic force into electricity.
4. Nacelle: The housing holding the gear box and generator is called the Nacelle, which can move according to the
direction of the wind.
5. Yaw mechanism: If the direction of the wind changes, the velocity sensor located on top of the nacelle sends a
signal to the yaw mechanism at the base of the nacelle. This mechanism then moves the blades to face the proper
wind direction.
6. Blade tilting mechanism: Also, the blades can rotate using a blade tilting mechanism to align themselves with the
proper angle of the wind.
OPERATION:
The turbine is used to convert wind energy into mechanical energy. A gear box is used to change speed. An alternator
is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
38
5 Explain the operation of Nuclear power plant including various parts in it and also give its construction details.

The main parts of the Nuclear power plant are

1. Nuclear reactor: A nuclear reactor is a chamber where heat is produced. It mainly consists of three parts: fuel
rods, moderators, and control rods.
2. Fuel rods: a material used to generate heat energy in nuclear power plants. Enriched uranium clad with stainless
steel is used as fuel rods.
3. Moderator: a material used to slow down the velocity of thermal neutrons. Normal water (H2O)or heavy water
(D2O) is used as moderator.
4. Control rods: they are used to stop the nuclear fission process.
5. Steam Generator/ Heat Exchanger: a device that converts heat energy into steam.
6. Steam Turbine: Steam turbine is a device that converts steam into mechanical energy
7. Alternator: Alternator is an AC generator that converts mechanical energy from the turbine into electricity.
8. Condenser: The condenser is chamber where the high-temperature steam from the turbine is converted into low -
temperature water.

OPERATION:
The reactor is used to generate heat energy using the nuclear fission process. In the heat exchanger, the heat energy is
converted into steam. A steam turbine is used to convert steam jets into mechanical energy. An alternator is used to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

39
6 Define “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy.
Electrical Energy: Consumption & Bill Generation
The power rating of household appliances, including air conditioners, PCs, laptops, printers, and more, is
typically measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). It indicates the rate at which the appliance consumes electrical
energy. A higher power rating signifies greater energy consumption.
Electrical energy consumption is calculated in units. One unit of electrical energy consumption is equal to the
one kilowatt-hour (kWh). One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy used when a 1,000-watt appliance operates for
one hour.
To calculate electricity bill:
1. Calculate the number of hours each appliance operates and multiply it by its power rating in kilowatts.
2. Sum up the usage of all appliances to get the total energy consumption in kilowatt-hours.
3. Multiply this by your electricity provider's rate per kilowatt-hour to determine the cost.
Example-1: If you run a 1 kW air conditioner for 5 hours a day and your rate is 6 Rupees per kWh, what is the
monthly bill?
Monthly bill = (1 kW * 5 hours/day) * 30 days * (6 Rupees per kWh) = 900 Rupees.
Example-2: The following table provides the usage of electrical appliances in one domestic house. If unit cost of
electrical energy is 6.50 Rupees then determine electricity bill for a month.

No of Total Energy Energy consumed in

Total
SL operational consumed = No of kwh (units) per
Appliances Watts Qty no of
NO hours per watts X No of day= energy
watts
day operation hours consumed / 1000

1 Tube light 60W 4 240 5 1200 1.2

2 Fan 75W 4 300 8 2400 2.4

3 Refrigerator 200W 1 200 24 4800 4.8

4 AC 1500W 2 3000 5 15,000 15

5 Laptop 50W 1 50 2 100 0.1

6 Television 50W 1 50 3 150 0.15

Washing
7 2000W 1 2000 1 2000 2
machine

8 Micro wave 1000W 1 1000 1 1000 1

Total no of units consumed per day 26.65 = 27 Units

Monthly bill = total no of units consumed per day * 30 days * (6.5 Rupees per kWh)
= 27 * 30 * 6.5
= 5,265 Rupees.

40
7 Write a note on types of tariffs and explain them briefly?
What is Tariff?
Tariff is the rate/ amount/ cost/ charge at which electricity is supplied to a customer.
The main purpose of the tariff is to recover the capital investment and maintaining the service without any
interruption.
Factors affected on the tariff
 Type of load (domestic/ commercial/ industrial)
 Maximum demand (when all loads are connected at a time)
 No of units consumed (up to 100 units, between 100 to 200 units etc.)
 Time of day (day time/ night time)
 Purpose (domestic/agriculture/business/education/ hospitals etc.)
Types of Tariff

S.No. Type of Tariff Remarks

In some regions, an electricity provider might offer a flat rate tariff where households
pay a fixed monthly fee irrespective of how much electricity they use.
1 Flat rate tariff:
T= F
T= Tariff; F= Fixed amount
In Two-part tariff, the total charge is split into two components:
 A fixed charge dependent up on the maximum demand and
2 Two-part tariff:  A variable charge based on the energy consumption.
T=A+BN
T= Tariff; A= Fixed Charge; B=Variable charge; N=Number of units consumed
In some regions, the first 100 units might be charged at a lower rate. And higher rates
3 Block rate tariff: applied as consumption increases.
Ex: Up to 100 units, unit cost is Rs.6/- more than 100 units cost of unit is Rs. 8/-
Maximum T=PN+Q
4
demand tariff: P=cost for unit; N= number of units; Q=Maximum demand charges
Power factor
5 Tariff value depends on the type of load
tariff:
Time of day
6 Tariff value depends on the time of day
(ToD) tariff

41
8 Mention the importance of safety measures in electricity and write the various types of earthing used for various
applications
Earthing
It is the process of instant discharge of electrical energy into the earth through a low resistance wire.
Earthing means the connection of non-current carrying parts of the equipment to the earth.
Necessity of earthing
1. Earthing protect the human lives and electrical equipment from fault current.
2. Maintain the voltage at a constant level even fault occurs.
3. Protect the buildings from over voltages due to lightning strokes.
4. Prevent the fire in electrical systems.
5. Provide a return path for the fault current.

a. No earthing situation b. Earthing situation

Types of Earthing

1. Plate type

2. Pipe type

3. Rod Type

4. Strip type

Comparison of types of earthing

Type of Earthing Plate type Pipe type Rod Type Strip type

Earth Electrode Cu or GI plate Cu or GI pipe Cu or GI rod Cu or GI strip

Earth wire Cu wire Cu wire Cu wire Cu wire

Dimensions 2 m X 2 m X 6 mm 2 m long 2 m long 25 mm X 4 mm

Depth 3mt 3mt 3mt 0.5mt

Filling materials Charcoal and salt Charcoal and salt Charcoal and salt Charcoal and salt

42
9 Explain the Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) and also write the application of
Fuse and MCB
Fuse
A fuse is a safety device that protects electrical circuits from over current.
It consists of a thin wire (Lead/ aluminum/ silver/ copper/ alloy wires).
Working Principle: The fuse generates the heat when the current passing
through it (heat = I2Rt; where I is the current, R is the resistance of fuse,
and t is the time of operation of fuse). If the heat produced by the fuse is
more than the set value then the fuse will be melt and fuse breaks the circuit
to prevent damage or fire.

a. Normal condition b. Fault condition

Merits:
 Cost is less and simple operation.
 Fast response to over current
 Provides basic protection for electrical systems.
Demerits:
 One-time use;
 Must be replaced after blowing.
 Limited accuracy
 Can't be reset or adjusted.

43
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

MCB OVERLOAD SHORT CIRCUIT

MCB is a safety device used for circuit protection. It works on the principle of thermal-magnetic protection. It has a
bimetallic strip and a solenoid.
Working Principle: The bimetallic strip bends when excessive current flows through the load (thermal protection).
The solenoid trips the breaker in case of short circuits (magnetic protection).
Merits:
 Fast Response
 Resettable
 Compact size saves space in electrical panels.
 More reliable than fuse.
Demerits:
 Limited Capacity
 Less sensitivity than fuse.
 Cost is high when compared to fuses
Working: 3 conditions
1. Normal condition:
Under normal condition, the current flows from the
Phase wire ---- > Solenoid ---- > Bimetallic strip ---- > closed contact ---- > load ---- > Neutral wire.
So, MCB is ON.

a. MCB under Normal condition

44
 2. Overload condition
Overload condition means applied load is greater than the rated value.
Phase wire ---- > Solenoid ---- > Bimetallic strip ---- > Bend ---- > open circuit ---- > Load safe.

Bimetallic strip ------ > hits the trip bar ------ > MCB OFF.

b. Under Overload condition (Thermal trip protection)

3. Short circuit condition

Excess current ---- > Phase wire ---- > Solenoid ---- > Magnetized ---- > attracts Plunger (P) ---- >open circuit ---
- > Load safe.
Plunger ------ > hits the trip bar ------ > MCB OFF.

c.Under Short circuit condition (Magnetic trip protection)

45
 CHAPTER - 4
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1 Explain the Evolution of Electronics from Vacuum tubes to Nanoelectronics.
Evolution of electronics:

Vacuum tubes were the primary electronic components used in the early days of electronics. They were used in radios,
televisions, and computers. However, they were large, fragile, and consumed a lot of power. With the advent of
transistors, vacuum tubes were replaced by smaller, more efficient, and more reliable electronic components. The
summary of electronics evolution is given below.

Sl. Invention Description Remarks

Era
No.
1904: John Fleming
It contains of two
Vacuum Tubes invented the first
terminals the cathode The vacuum tube was a
(1904-1947) vacuum tube – the
and the anode. bulky and fragile device
diode.
1 which consumed a
1907: De Forest
The triode consists of significant power.
invented the triode by
a cathode, an anode,
inserting the third
and a control grid.
terminal.
Transistors
Transistors replaced
(1947-1960) 1947: Shockley, A transistor is a three
vacuum tubes, offering
Bardeen and Brattain at terminal device. The
2 smaller size, lower power
Bell Labs invented the terminals are emitter
consumption, and greater
first transistor. base and collector.
reliability.

An IC consists of
Integrated Circuits and 1960: Jack Kilby multiple Transistor,
They reduce the space and
Microprocessor invented the first resistors and
cost of the gadgets.
(1960-1980) Integrated circuit (IC) capacitors fabricated
3 on single chip
1971: Federico Faggin Which was a 4 bit
designed the first CPU with a clock It makes the revolution in
Microprocessor speed of 740 kHz and personal computers
(Intel 4004) 2300 transistor
Digital Revolution The advent of the internet in the 1990s further transformed the way
4
(1980s-1990) information was processed, communicated, and accessed.
1991: The 2G was launched, which improved the quality of calling and
Mobile and Wireless reduced noise. Its speed range is 20 Kbps-200Kbps.
communication 2001: The 3G was launched, which improved data transfer speed from Kbps to
(1990-Present) Mbps. Its speed range is 2 Mbps-10 Mbps.
5
2009: The 4G was launched, which improves data transfer speed almost ten
times faster than 3G. Its speed range is 20 Mbps-100 Mbps.
2019: The 5G was launched, and it is used in various emerging technologies
like IoT, AI, cloud computing, etc. Its speed range is 150 Mbps-200 Mbps.
Ongoing advancements in semiconductor technology, including the use of
6 Nanotechnology
nonmaterial makes energy-efficient electronic devices.

46
2 Explain the working of PN Junction diode under forward and reverse bias conditions.
1. Zero bias/ No bias:

a. Zero bias
 In P-type semiconductors, the majority of charge carriers are holes.
 In N-type semiconductors, the majority of charge carriers are electrons.
 When a P-type semiconductor is sandwiched with an N-type semiconductor, it forms a PN junction.
 The zero bias condition means the applied voltage is equal to zero.
 Near the junction, the holes from the P-side and the electrons from the N-side will recombine to form a barrier
across the junction. This barrier restricts the movement of charge carriers, so the current in the diode is zero,
and diode acts as an insulator under zero bias condition.
2. Forward biased PN junction diode:

b. Forward bias c. Reverse bias

 In Forward bias condition, the P-type semiconductor is connected to the positive electrode of the battery and
the N-type semiconductor is connected to the negative electrode of the battery as shown in Figure b.
 Since the holes are positive charge carriers, they are repelled by a positive electrode and push towards the

47
 junction. Similarly, the electrons are negative charge carriers; they are repelled by the negative electrode and
push towards the junction. This repulsive force narrows the junction and reduces the width of the depletion
layer. In addition, the depletion layer's width gets thinner as the voltage rises.
 When the applied voltage is equal to the barrier potential (0.3 volts for a germanium diode and 0.7 volts for a
silicon diode), the barrier breaks and the diode starts conduction. So, the diode acts as a conductor after the
threshold value.
3. Reversed biased PN Junction:
 In reverse bias condition, the P-type semiconductor is connected to the negative electrode of the battery and
the N-type semiconductor is connected to the positive electrode of the battery as shown in Figure c.
 Since the holes are positive charge carriers, they are attracted by a negative electrode and move away from the
junction. Similarly, the electrons are negative charge carriers; they are attracted by the positive electrode and
move away from the junction. This attractive force widens the junction and increases the width of the
depletion layer. In addition, the depletion layer's width gets thicker as the voltage rises.
 That means, as the reverse voltage increases, the width of the depletion region increases. Hence, the resistance
offered by the depletion region increases. So the current through the diode is zero. Therefore, the diode acts as
an insulator in a reverse bias condition. The diode is in an off state.
 However, in the reverse bias condition, the diode has a minute amount of current (generally in microampere or
nonoampere) due to minority charge carriers (the electrons in a P-type and the holes in an N-type). This
current is known as the reverse saturation current or leakage current.
 The reverse voltage induces an electric field, E, across the junction. And at a particular value of reverse
voltage, the induced electric field causes an avalanche, which will break the barrier and destroy the diode. So,
the minimum amount of reverse voltage at which a diode transforms from an off state to breakdown is called
the reverse breakdown voltage. The value of the reverse breakdown voltage is around -50 volts for a
germanium diode and around -200 volts for a silicon diode. That’s why silicon is more preferred than
germanium.

48
3 Explain the Volt-Ampere (V-I) characteristics of the PN junction diode.
1. Forward Bias Condition:

a. Forward bias connection b. Forward bias characteristics

Forward bias operation:

1) V  VK  Diode doesn't conduct  diode current I  0

2) V  VK  Diode starts condution

 VV 
3) V  VK  Diode current rises rapidly I  I 0  e T  1
 
 
2. Reverse Bias Condition:

c. Reverse bias connection d. Reverse bias characteristics

Reverse bias operation:

1) V  VBR  Diode doesn't conduct. It is in an off state.

2) V  VBR  Diode transition from an off state to breakdown.
3) V  VBR  Diode current rises rapidly  And will distroy the diode.

49
 But the diode has a minute current I  I 0

This current due to minority charge carriers.

I 0  diode reverse saturation current (A)
I 0 is very small either in  A or nA
As from the above study the complete VI characteristics of the PN junction are shown in below Figure.

e. Complete V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode

Where,
V  applied voltage across the diode (V)
I  diode current (A)
VK  knee voltage or threshold voltage cut-in voltage(V)
I 0  diode reverse saturation current (A)
VBR  breakdown voltage (V)

50
4 Explain the characteristics of Zener diode.
Zener Diode

a. Zener diode b. Zener diode characteristics

 Zener Diode is a Highly Doped PN Junction Diode.

 Zener Diodes are meant to work in Reverse Bias condition.
 Under Forward Bias condition the operation of Zener Diode is similar to Normal PN Junction Diode.
 Under Reverse Bias condition Zener Diode can act as a Constant Voltage Source. So it is used as Voltage
Regulator.
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

The Zener diode regulates the fluctuations in the input voltage and provides a constant output voltage to the
load as shown in the below Figure.

The circuit connection of the Zener diode is shown in below Figure

51
The Zener diode resistance is not constant, depends upon the applied voltage across it.

As the change in voltage increases, the current flowing through the Zener diode increases and the value of
Zener resistance decreases. Therefore the voltage across the Zener diode (i.e. the product of the current
flowing through the Zener diode and the Zener resistance) is constant.

V  I z  Rz  Vz  I z Rz  constant
As the change in voltage decreases, the current flowing through the Zener diode decreases and the value of
Zener resistance increases. Therefore the voltage across the Zener diode (i.e. the product of current flowing
through the Zener diode and Zener resistance) is constant.

V  I z  Rz  Vz  I z Rz  constant
Based on the doping concentration, the Zener diode produces a fixed constant voltage.

Let us Consider a 4 V Zener diode. And the following are the observations.

Input voltage Current through the Zener diode Zener diode resistance Output voltage
5 1 4 4
6 1.33 3 4
7 2 2 4

From the above table it is observed that the output voltage is 4v irrespective of input voltage fluctuations
Therefore, the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

52
5 Explain the breakdown mechanisms of PN Junction diode.

Basis For Comparison Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Diode PN junction diode Zener diode
Doping Low Heavy
Depletion Region Thick Thin
The reverse voltage induces the The reverse voltage induces the electric field. Due to
electric field, which causes the the thin depletion region, the intensity of the induced
Reason for the breakdown
generation of electrons electric field is very strong. This intense electric
through the collision process. field is the reason for the Zener breakdown.
Ionization Because of collision Because of Electric Field
Electric Field Normal but sufficient for Very Strong
collision process.
Junction Destroy Not Destroy
Reverse breakdown voltage High Low
After Breakdown Voltage is varying Voltage remains constant

a. Avalaunche and zener breakdown mechanisms

53
6 What is BJT? Explain its construction. And What are the two types of BJTs?
What is BJT?

 BJT stands for Bipolar Junction Transistor

 BJT is a three terminal and two junction Semiconductor device.
 The three terminals are Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C).
 The two Junctions are Emitter-Base Junction and Collector-Base Junction
 The operation of BJT depends on the interaction of majority and minority charge carriers. Hence, it is named
as bipolar device.
 Transistor means transfer resistor i.e. signals are transferred from low resistance (input) circuit into high
resistance (output) circuit.
 A BJT is a Current Controlled Device because the input current of the transistor controls the output
current.
 The main applications of BJT are switch, amplifier and oscillator.

Construction of BJT

 Emitter: It is heavily doped than any of the other region because its main function is to supply majority
charge carriers to the base.
 Base: Base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes most of the injected carriers from the Emitter into the
Collector.
 Collector: Collector is moderately doped. Its main function is to collect the majority charge carriers from the
Emitter through the Base.

54
7 Explain the construction and working of PNP and NPN transistors.

Parameter PNP Transistor NPN Transistor

An N – type silicon is sandwiched between A P – type silicon is sandwiched between
Construction
two layers of P – type silicon. two layers of N – type silicon.

Circuit

Symbol

Current Hole Electron

As the base is lightly doped with N – As the base is lightly doped with P –
type impurity, the number of electrons in type impurity, the number of holes in the
the base region is very small. Hence the base region is very small. Hence the
number of holes that recombine with number of electrons that recombine with
electrons in the base region is also very holes in the base region is also very less.
less. Hence a few holes recombine with Hence a few electrons recombine with
Working
electrons and constitute a base current IB. holes and constitute a base current IB.
The remaining holes (more than 95%) The remaining electrons (more than 95%)
crossover into the collector region to crossover into the collector region to
constitute a collector current IC. Thus constitute a collector current IC. Thus
collector and base current, when summed collector and base current, when summed
up gives the Emitter current. up gives the Emitter current.

55
8 Briefly explain the three different modes of a transistor.

Transistor: It can be used as either a switch or an amplifier.

Input Output Mode Application

Forward bias Forward bias Saturation Fully ON switch
Reverse bias Reverse bias Cut-off Fully OFF switch
Forward bias Reverse bias Active Amplifier

Transistor acts a switch

 To be used as an ON-switch, both the input and output sides of the transistor must be connected in
forward bias. This mode of operation of a transistor is called saturation mode.

 To be used as an OFF-switch, both the input and output sides of the transistor must be connected in
reverse bias. This mode of operation of a transistor is called cut-off mode.

Transistor acts an amplifier

 To be used as an amplifier, the input side is connected in forward bias and the output side is
connected in reverse bias. This mode of operation of a transistor is called active mode.

56
10 Write a short note on transistor configuarions

Transistor configuarations
The transistor has three terminals: an emitter, a base, and a collector. But two terminals are required for the
input, and two terminals are required for the output. So, one terminal is considered common for both input
and output. Therefore, according to the terminal, which is considered to be common, transistor
configurations are divided into following three types.
1. Common base configuation (CB): The input is applied between the emitter and the base and the
output is taken from the collector and the base. It is rarely used as anplifer. It is mainly used as a
constant current source or current buffer since the input current is almost same as the input current.
This circuit has low input impedance and high output impadance.

2. Common emitter configuaration (CE): The input is applied between the base and the emitter and the
output is taken from the collector and the emitter. It is widely used as an amplifer than other two
configuarations. It has high current gain, voltage gain and the power gain.

3. Comon collector configuaration (CC):The input is applied between the base and the collector and the
output is taken from the emitter and the collector. It is aso called emitter follower/ voltage buffer.

57
11 Explain about base width modulation (Early’s effect)

Base width modulation or Early’s effect

The reduction of effective base width (Wb) by collector to base reverse voltage is known as base-width
modulation. This effect is invented by J. M. Early hence called Early’s effect.

As the reverse bias collector base voltage, VCB increases

 The width of the depletion region, Wd increases
 The effective width of the base region, Wb decreases
Therefore, the chances for the recombination in the base region decreases and hence,
 The Base current decreases.
 The Collector current increases
 Emitter current increase
 Current gain α increases

58
12 Explain the input & output characteristics of a Transistor in CB configuration.

Configuration Common Base (CB)

Terminals Common terminal: Base, Input terminal: Emitter, Output terminal: Collector

Circuit
Diagram

Inputs VEB I E
,

Outputs VCB I C
,
The input characteristic of CB amplifer is drawn in between VEB , I E  at VCB  const.

Input
Characteristics
Vin , I in 
at Vout  const.

As the reverse voltage, VCB increases, the emitter current increases due to base width
modulation (Early’s effect).

59
 The output characteristics of a CB amplifier is drawn in between VCB , I C  at I E  const.

Output
Characteristics
Vout , I out 
at Iin  const.

 In saturation region the transistor acts as an on switch.

 In cut-off region the transistor acts an off switch.
 In active region the transistor acts as an amplifier.

Current
I E  IC  I B
relationship

60
13 Explain the input and output characteristics of a Transistor in CE configuration.

Configuration Common Emitter (CE)

Terminals Common terminal: Emitter , Input terminal: Base, Output terminal: Collector

Circuit
Diagram

Inputs VBE I B
,

Outputs VCE I C
,
The input characteristic of CE amplifer is drawn in between VBE , I B  at VCE  const.

Input
Characteristics
Vin , I in 
at Vout  const.

As the reverse voltage, VCE increases, the base current increases due to base width
modulation (Early’s effect).

61
 The output characteristics of a CE amplifier is drawn in between VCE , I C  at I B  const.

Output
Characteristics

 In saturation region the transistor acts as an on switch.

 In cut-off region the transistor acts an off switch.
 In active region the transistor acts as an amplifier.
Current
I E  IC  I B
relationship

62
14 Explain the input and output characteristics of a Transistor in CC configuration.

Configuration Common Collector (CC)

Terminals Common terminal: Collector , Input terminal: Base, Output terminal: Emitter

Circuit
Diagram

Inputs VBC I B
,

Outputs VEC I E
,

The input characteristic of CC amplifer is drawn in between VBC , I B  at VEC  const.

Input
Characteristics
Vin , I in 
at Vout  const.
As the reverse voltage, VEC increases, the base current increases due to base width
modulation (Early’s effect).

63
 The output characteristics of a CC amplifier is drawn in between VEC , I E  at I B  const.

Output
Characteristics
Vout , I out 
at Iin  const.

 In saturation region the transistor acts as an on switch.

 In cut-off region the transistor acts an off switch.

In active region the transistor acts as an amplifier.

Current
I E  IC  I B
relationship

64
15 Compare of CB, CE, CC configurations.

Configuration CB CE CC

Circuit
diagram

Common
Base Emitter Collector
terminal
Input
Emitter Base Base
terminal
Output
Collector Collector Emitter
terminal
Input
voltage
VEB VBE VBC
Input
current
IE IB IB
Output
voltage
VCB VCE VEC
Output
Current
IC IC IE
IC IC IE
Current gain Ai   low  1 Ai   high Ai   high
IE IB IB
VCB VCE VEC
Voltage gain Av   high Av   high Av   low  1
VEB VBE VBC

Power gain AP  Ai Av  medium AP  Ai Av  high AP  Ai Av  medium

Input VEB VBE VBC

Zin   low Zin   high Z in   high
impedance IE IB IB

Output VCB VCE VEC

Z out   high Z out   high Z out   low
impedance IC IC IE
Since the output current (Ic)
Since the output current (Ic) is is very large when Since the output voltage is
almost equal to the input current compared to the input almost equal to the input
Application (Ie), CB configuration is used as current (Ib), CE voltage, CC configuration is
a constant current source, i.e., a configuration has high used as a constant voltage
current buffer. current gain and therefore, source, i.e., a voltage buffer.
it used as an amplifier.

65
 CHAPTER - 5
BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTTAION

1 Explain the block diagram of a regulated power supply (RPS)? Mention few applications of it.
The block diagram of regulated power supply (RPS) system is shown below.

1. Transformer: The input voltage is usually obtained from an AC source and is first passes
through a transformer to step it down to a suitable level.

2. Full wave rectifier: A rectifier is a converter which is used converts AC into DC. For a full
wave rectifier, the input is AC and the output is pulsating DC. There are two types of
rectifiers half-wave rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers.

3. Filter: They are used to remove the AC content present in the DC output of rectifier.
Basically inductors and capacitors are used to remove the AC content. There are various
types of filters used for the AC filtration are L filter, C filter, LC filter etc.

4. Zener diode: Even after filtration, the filter circuit output has some unwanted AC
component called ripples. To remove this ripple as well as the voltage fluctuations, a circuit
called zener diode is used. Zener diode removes the fluctuations of filter output and sends
pure DC to the load.
5. Load: The appliance to which DC supply is given.

Applications of RPS
 Testing circuits and Testing mobile phone chargers
 Home appliances
 Various oscillators & amplifiers
 Audio visual applications

66
2 Describe the operation of a half-wave rectifier with neat circuit diagram and waveforms.
Half-Wave Rectifier:
A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts an AC voltage to a pulsating DC voltage. It is a simple circuit that
consists of a single diode and a load resistor. The diode allows the current to flow in only one direction, which results
in the output voltage being positive for half of the input cycle and zero for the other half.

Vin  Input Voltage (T/F Sec. Vol.)

Vout  Output Voltage (Load Vol.)
Rs  T/F Sec. Wdg. Resistance
R f  Diode Resistance under FB
Rr  Diode Resistance under RB
RL  Load Resistance
D  Diode
a. Circuit diagram b. Input and Output waveforms
Working of HWR During Positive Half Cycle:
D  FB
R f  Very small

I  Flows
Vout  Vin
Working of HWR During Negative Half Cycle:
D  RB
Rr  Infinity
I 0
Vout  0

67
3 Explain the working of Full-wave bridge rectifier with a neat circuit diagram and waveforms.
Full-Wave bridge Rectifier:
A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts an AC voltage to a pulsating DC voltage. A full-wave bridge rectifier
consists of a four diodes and a load resistor. During positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D2 become forward biased
and conduct the current where as the diodes D3 and D4 become reverse biased. During negative half cycle, the diodes
D3 and D4 become forward biased and conduct the current where as the diodes D1 and D2 become reverse biased.

a. Circuit diagram b. Input and output waveforms

Working of FWR during Positive Half Cycle:
D1 and D2  FB
D3 and D4  RB
Current flow :
Neg  Pos  D1  RL  D2  Neg

Vout  Vin
Working of FWR during Negative Half Cycle:
D1 and D2  RB
D3 and D4  FB

Current flow :
Neg  Pos  D4  RL  D3  Neg

Vout  Vin

68
4 Enumerate is the purpose of a filter in a regulated power supply system with help of wave forms. Explain
briefly about the capacitor-filter circuit operation.
Filters
The output of a rectifier contains both AC and DC components. But, the presence of the AC component is undesirable
feature, and hence it has to be removed. The circuit used to remove unwanted AC (ripple) from the rectifier output is
called Filter.

Working of FWR with Capacitor Filter

The impedance offered by a capacitor

is 1/ωC. The impedance offered by a
capacitor is inversely proportional to
frequency ω.

For an AC input (high frequency

signal), the capacitor offers very less
impedance.
a. FWR without Filter
For a DC input (zero frequency
signal), the capacitor offers very high
impedance.

The capacitor allows AC through it

and opposes DC. Therefore, the AC
component will get filtered and the
load receives the DC component.

b. FWR with filter

69
5 Explain the working of zener diode as a voltage regulator with neat circuit and wave forms.
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
The Zener diode regulates the fluctuations in the input voltage and provides a constant output voltage to the load as
shown in the below Figure.

The circuit connection of the Zener diode is shown in below Figure

The Zener diode resistance is not constant, depends upon the applied voltage across it.

As the change in voltage increases, the current flowing through the Zener diode increases and the value of Zener
resistance decreases. Therefore the voltage across the Zener diode (i.e. the product of the current flowing through the
Zener diode and the Zener resistance) is constant.

V  I z  Rz  Vz  I z Rz  constant
As the change in voltage decreases, the current flowing through the Zener diode decreases and the value of Zener
resistance increases. Therefore the voltage across the Zener diode (i.e. the product of current flowing through the
Zener diode and Zener resistance) is constant.

V  I z  Rz  Vz  I z Rz  constant
Based on the doping concentration, the Zener diode produces a fixed constant voltage. Let us Consider a 4 V Zener
diode. And the following are the observations.

Input voltage Current through the Zener diode Zener diode resistance Output voltage
5 1 4 4
6 1.33 3 4
7 2 2 4
From the above table it is observed that the output voltage is 4v irrespective of input voltage fluctuations Therefore,
the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

70
6 Explain the block diagram of a public address system. Also mention few applications.
Public Address System
A public address system (or PA system) is an electronic system comprising microphones, amplifier, and
loudspeakers. PA system is used in various public gatherings places for better communication.

a. Microphone b. Amplifier c. Loudspeaker

1. Microphone: A Microphone is a device that converts sound waves into an electrical signal. A PA system
may have several microphones and other sound systems like Guitar, Piano etc. To mix all the sound signals
without over lapping each other a device called Mixer is used.
2. Amplifiers: An amplifier is a device used to amplify electrical signals.
3. Speakers: A Speaker is a device that converts the amplified electric signal into a high-intensity sound signal
Applications:
1. Public gatherings (political party meetings)
2. School/ college auditoriums
3. Holy places (churches/temple/mosque)
4. Public transportation vehicles (Metro/MMTS/Buses)
5. Concerts
6. Sports, theaters, shopping malls etc.

a. Concert b. Public meeting c. Sports auditorium

71
7 Illustrate the working of a RC coupled common emitter amplifier with a neat circuit diagram along with its
frequency response.

RC Coupled Common Emitter Amplifier

a. Two-Stage RC Coupled Amplifier

Q1 & Q2  Transistors
VCC  DC Bias signal, generally +5 V.
Vin  Input signal (weak signal)
Vout  Output signal (amplified signal)
Ci , CC and Co  Coupling capacitors
R1 & R2  Voltage divider
RE & RC  Emitter and collector resistances

72
Biasing
To use a transistor as an amplifier, you first need to prepare the transistor to work in the active region. To
work the given transistor in the active region, a proper bias signal is required.
Faithful amplification
As the temperature changes, transistor parameters like amplifier gain and leakage current etc will change.
The variation in transistor parameters affects the output signal and results in unfaithful amplification.
Biasing helps to control the transistor parameter variations and keeps the transistor working at a stable
operating point. So, biasing is important to operate the transistor in the active region, to work at a fixed
operating point, and for faithful amplification.
Construction of RC coupled amplifier
A RC couple common emitter amplifier is a two-stage amplifier used for amplifying a weak input signal into
a high-intensity signal. A weak signal that you want to amplify is given to the base of the Stage 1 transistor,
Q1. The output is collected from the collector of Q1 and given to the base of the Stage 2 transistor, Q2,
through a coupling capacitor Cc. The function of various components of this amplifier are as follows.
1. Vcc: The Vcc is a bias signal; generally its value is +5 V.
2. Voltage Divider: A voltage divider or potential divider is a circuit composed of two series resistors (R1
and R2) that are used to give a biasing signal for faithful amplification.
3. RE & CE: The resistor and capacitor, connected to the emitter terminal, will also help stabilize the
circuit.
4. Coupling Capacitors (Filters): Ci Cc and Co are coupling capacitors that are used to remove DC signal
and pass the AC signals only.
Working of RC coupled amplifier:

At Stage 1, the amplifier gain is Av1 and the amplified signal have phase shift of 180 degree.
At Stage 2, the amplifier gain is Av2 and the amplified signal have phase shift of 180 degree.
So, the overall gain of the amplifier is Av=Av1*Av2 and the total phase shift is 360 degree (=0 degree).
Therefore, the input signal and the final amplified output signal have the phase.

73
Frequency response of RC coupled amplifier
The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier (a curve of amplifier’s gain v/s frequency), shown in
Figure below, indicates that the gain of the amplifier is constant over a wide range of mid-frequencies while
it decreases considerably both at low and high frequencies.

This is because, at low frequencies, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is high which causes a small part
of the signal to couple from one stage to the other. Moreover for the same case, even the reactance of the
emitter capacitor CE will be high due to which it fails to shunt the emitter resistor R E effectively which in
turn reduces the voltage gain.
On the other hand, at high frequencies, the reactance of CC will be low which causes it to behave like a
short circuit. This results in an increase in the loading effect of the next stage and thus reduces the voltage
gain. In addition to this, for this case, the capacitive reactance of the base-emitter junction will be low.
Advantages
1. Cheap, economical and compact as it uses only resistors and capacitors.
2. Offers a constant gain over a wide frequency band.
Disadvantages
1. Unsuitable for low-frequency and very high frequency amplifications.
2. Moisture-sensitive, making them noisy as time elapses.
3. Poor impedance matching and Narrow bandwidth when compared to JFET amplifier.
Applications
1. Public address systems as pre-amplifiers.
2. Radio or TV Receivers as small signal amplifiers.
3. Optical Fiber Communications.
4. RF Communications.

74
 5. Controllers.

8 Draw the block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system and explain the working of each block in it.
The block diagram of the electronic instrumentation system is shown below.

1. Primary Sensing Element: A primary sensing element is a sensor or transducer that senses the physical
quantities like temperature, pressure, humidity, speed, flow, etc. and converts them into an electrical signal. For
example, a thermocouple converts temperature into an electrical signal.
2. Variable manipulation element: The variable manipulation element is a transmitter that is used to condition the
sensor output signal and pass it to the next level. For example, a temperature transmitter that converts a
minuscule sensor output electrical signal (8-18mV) into a industry standard electrical signal (4 mA - 20 mA).
3. Data transmission element: A data transmission element is a medium through which data is transmitted. For
example, a coaxial cable.
4. Data presentation element: A data presentation element is a recording and controlling element. For example,
PLC.

75
9 What are applications of electronic instrumentation system and explain the importance of electronic
instrumentation system.
Electronic instrumentation plays a crucial role in various fields, enabling precise measurements and data
acquisition. Let’s explore some of its applications:
1. Scientific Research and Laboratories: Electronic instruments
are used extensively in scientific research, allowing accurate
measurements of physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, and voltage. They facilitate experiments, data
collection, and analysis.

2. Industrial Automation and Control: In manufacturing and

process industries, electronic instrumentation ensures efficient
production and quality control. Examples include monitoring
temperature in chemical reactors, controlling motor speed, and
regulating pressure in pipelines.

3. Healthcare and Medical Devices: Medical instruments like

ECG machines, ultrasound devices, and blood pressure monitors
rely on electronic instrumentation. These tools aid in diagnosing
illnesses, monitoring patient health, and administering
treatments.

4. Telecommunications: Electronic instruments are essential for

signal processing, network analysis, and testing communication
devices. They help maintain reliable communication networks.

5. Environmental Monitoring: Instruments measure air quality,

water pollution, and radiation levels. For instance, weather
stations use electronic sensors to collect meteorological data.

76
 6. Aerospace and Defense: Flight control systems, radar, and
navigation instruments depend on electronic components. They
ensure safe and accurate operations in aircraft and spacecraft.

7. Automotive Industry: Electronic instrumentation is integral to

modern vehicles. It includes engine control units (ECUs),
sensors, and onboard diagnostics (OBD) systems.

8. Energy Sector: Power plants, substations, and grid management

rely on electronic instruments for monitoring voltage, current,
and frequency. Smart meters enable efficient energy
consumption.

9. Education and Research Institutions: Laboratories,

universities, and schools use electronic instruments for teaching
and conducting experiments. Oscilloscopes, multimeters, and
function generators are common tools.

10. Consumer Electronics: Devices like smart phones, cameras,

and audio players incorporate electronic sensors and
measurement circuits. These enhance user experience and
functionality.

1.

77
 CHAPTER - 6
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

1 Write a short note on number system

Number Base Digits Highest number Total number of digits =

System = (Base)
(Base -1)
Binary 2 0, 1 1 2
Ternary 3 0, 1, 2 2 3
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 7 8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 9 10
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F F 16

2a Find (586)10 = ( )8

Note :
8 586 R 586
 73.25  Q  73.25  0.25  73 & R  0.25  8  2
8 73 2 8
LSB
73
8 9 1  9.125  Q  9.125  0.125  9 & R  0.125  8  1
8
1 1
MSB 9
 1.125  Q  1.125  0.125  1 & R  0.125  8  1
8
 (586)10  (1112)8
2b Find (3952.4)10 = ( )8

R
Note :
0.4  8  3.2 3
8 3952 R 3952 MSB
 494  Q  494 & R  0 0.2  8  1.6 1
8 494 0 8
LSB
494 0.6  8  4.8 4
8 61 6  61.75  Q  61.75  0.75  61 & R  0.75  8  6
8 0.8  8  6.4 6
8 7 5 LSB
MSB 61
 7.625  Q  7.625  0.625  7 & R  0.625  8  5 0.4  8  3.2
8 Repeat
Stop

(3952)10  (7560)8 (0.4)10  (3146)8

 (3952.4)10  (7560.3146 )8

78
3a Find (231)10=( )2

Note :
231
 115.5  Q  115 & R  0.5  2  1
2 231 R 2
2 115 1 115
LSB  57.5  Q  57 & R  0.5  2  1
2
2 57 1
57
2 28 1  28.5  Q  28 & R  0.5  2  1
2
2 14 0 28
 14  Q  14 & R  0
2 7 0 2
2 3 1 14
7Q7 & R0
1 1 2
MSB
7
 3.5  Q  3 & R  0.5  2  1
2
3
 1.5  Q  1 & R  0.5  2  1
2
(231)10  (11100111) 2
3b Find (284.25)10=( )2

Note :
284
 142  Q  142 & R  0
2
2 284 R 142
2 142 0  71  Q  71 & R  0
LSB 2
2 71 0 71
 35.5  Q  35 & R  0.5  2  1 R
2 35 1 2 0.25  2  0.5 0
35 MSB
2 17 1  17.5  Q  17 & R  0.5  2  1 0.5  2  1 1
2 LSB
2 8 1
17 0
2 4 0  8.5  Q  8 & R  0.5  2  1 Zero  Stop
2
2 2 0 8
4Q 4 & R 0
2 1 0 2
MSB
4
2Q 2 & R 0
2
2
1 Q 1 & R  0
2
(284)10  (100011100) 2 (0.25)10  (01) 2
 (284.25)10  (100011100.01) 2

79
4a Find (1101101)2 = ( )16
110 1101
0110 1101

0110 1101
 8 421  8 421
 6  13
D

 (1101101) 2  (6 D)16
4b Find (11001100.10011100)2 =( )16
11001100.10011100
11001100.10011100

1100 1100 . 1001 1100

 8 421  8 421  8 421  8 421
 12  C  12  C 9 C

(11001100.10011100) 2  (CC.9C )16

4c Find (11001101110.1001101)2 =( )16
(11001101110.1001101)2

 
0 110 0110 1110 . 1001 101 0
 8 421  8 421  8 421  8 421  8 421
6 6  13 9  10
D A

(11001101110.10011010)2  (66 D.9 A)16

4d (101101110001.00101)2 = ( )8
(101101110001.00101)2 = ( )8

 
110 110 001 . 001 01 0
 421  421  421  421  421
6 6 1 1 2

(101101110001.00101)2 = (661.12)8

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5 Discuss various Laws of Boolean algebra.
PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
1. Commutative Law

Rule 1 : A  B = B  A
Rule 2 : A + B = B + A
A B A B BA A+B B+A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

2. Associative Law

Rule 1 : (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
Rule 2 : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
A B C (A  B) (B  C) (A  B)  C A  (B  C) (A + B) (B + C) (A + B) + C A + (B + C)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3. Distributive Law

Rule 1 : A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
Rule 2 : A + (B  C) = (A + B)  ( A + C)

A B C (B + C) A  (B + C) (A  B) (A  C) (A  B) + (A  C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 Rule 2 : A + (B  C) = (A + B)  ( A + C)

A B C (B  C) A + (B  C) (A + B) (A + C) (A + B)  (A + C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4. De Morgan’s Law

Rule 1 : A  B = A + B
Rule 2 : A + B = A  B
A B A B A B A B AB A+B A+B A B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

5. Identity Law

Rule 1 : A + 0 = A
Rule 2 : 1  A = A
6. Idempotent Law

Rule 1 : A + A = A
Rule 2 : A  A = A
7. Complement Law

Rule 1 : A + A = 1
Rule 2 : A  A = 0
A A AA AA
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0

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6 Draw the symbols and truth tables of logic gates.

Basic Gates: AND, OR and NOT these three gates are called Basic Gates.
BASIC GATE SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE

A B Y = AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
AND GATE
1 0 0
1 1 1

A B Y = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
OR GATE
1 0 1
1 1 1

A Y=A
NOT GATE 0 1
1 0

Universal Gates: NAND and NOR these two gates are called Universal Gates (One can implement any

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other gates by using these two gates).

UNIVERSAL
SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE
GATE

A B A B Y = A B  A + B
0 0 1 1 1
NAND GATE 0 1 1 0 1
(AND+NOT) 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0

A B A B Y = A + B  A B
0 0 1 1 1
NOR GATE 0 1 1 0 0
(OR+NOT) 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0

Special Gates: XOR and XNOR these two gates are called Special Gates.

SPECIAL
SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE
GATE

A B A B AB AB Y = AB + AB
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
EX-OR 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0

A B A B AB AB Y = AB + AB
EX-NOR 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1

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7 State and prove the De Morgan’s Laws of Boolean algebra in three variables.
De Morgan’s proposed two Laws to simplify complex Boolean expressions. They find applications in digital logic
design, circuit simplification, and computer science.
De Morgan’s First Law (for NAND operations)
The complement of the product of all the terms is equal to the sum of the complements of each term.

A B C  A  B  C
A B C A B C ABC ABC ABC
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

De Morgan’s Second Law (for NOR operations)

The complement of the sum of all the terms is equal to the product of the complements of each term.

A  B  C  A B C
A B C A B C A + B +C A+B+C ABC
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

8 Design a half adder circuit and explain its operation with neat diagram and truth table.

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Half adder
A half adder is a combinational circuit, which is used to perform arithmetic sum of two bits.

Truth table

A B Sum (S) Carry (C0 )

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Arithmetic Expressions for Sum and Carry

As from the above truth table, one can write

S = AB + AB

S  AB
C0 = AB
Logic Circuit
As from the above equations, the logic circuit for half adder is

Limitation
Half adder doesn’t consider the carry of the previous addition. It will just add the present inputs.

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9 Design a full adder circuit and explain its operation with neat diagram and truth table.
Full adder
A full adder is a combinational circuit, which is used to perform arithmetic sum of three bits. Among three
input bits, two bits are actual input bits and one bit is previous carry bit.
Truth table

A B C Sum (S) Carry (C0 )

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Arithmetic Expressions for Sum and Carry

As from the above truth table, one can write logic C0 = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
expressions for Sum (S) and Carry (Co).
C0 = ABC + ABC + AB(C + C)
S = ABC + ABC  ABC  ABC
S = A(BC + BC)  A(BC  BC) C0 = ABC + ABC + AB (C + C) = 1

S = A(B  C)  A(B C) C0 = (AB + AB)C + AB

S = A(B  C)  A(B  C) C0 = (A  B)C + AB
S = A B C

Logic Circuit
As from the above equations, the logic circuit for full adder is given below.

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1 Write a short notes on sequential circuits
0
Combinational Circuit
A combinational circuit generates an output based on the current inputs only.

Eg. Encoders, decoders, adders, subtractor, multiplexers etc.

Sequential Circuit

 A sequential circuit is a combination of a combinational circuit and memory.

 The output of a sequential circuit depends on the present inputs and present state (past output).
 In the given example, the present input is the Channel Up button, the present state is Channel 7,
and the output is Channel 8.
 There are two types of sequential circuits namely, synchronous sequential circuits and
asynchronous sequential circuits.
 Asynchronous sequential circuits: Memory elements have different clock frequency. Examples:

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 Latches and delays.
 Synchronous sequential circuits: All the memory elements have the same clock frequency or
clock pulse. Examples: Flip flops, registers, and counters
 Flip-flop: A flip-flop is a memory element that is used to store one-bit binary data (0 or 1).
 Counter: A Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a
particular event or process has occurred. Counters are used in digital electronics for counting
purpose, they can count specific event happening in the circuit.
 Register: A register is a small and temporary storage unit inside a computer’s central processing
unit (CPU) that holds data for immediate processing. It is made up of flip-flops and usually holds a
limited amount of data ranging from 8 to 64 bits.

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