J

Experiment 3

Title: Study, Perfonn & Verify Superposition Theorem on Experimental Kit.

Apparatus: Superposition Theorem Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires, Multi ~eter
Theory: .
LSuperposition Theorem. The total current in any part of a linear circuit equals th.e algebraic sum
of the currents produced. -LS'y each source separately. To evaluate the separate currents to be
combined, replace all other voltage sources by short circuits and all other current sources by open
circuits.
The strategy used in the Superposition Theorem ·is to eliminate all but one source of power within
a network at a time, using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage drops (and/or currents)
within the modified network for each power source separately. Then; once voltage drops and/or
currents have been determined for each power source working separately, the values are all
"superimposed'~ on .top of each other (added algebraically) to find the actual voltage drops/currents
with all sources active. J
e( that [he Superposition Theorem works only for circuits that are reducible t0 series/parallel
combinatiGns for each of the power sources at a time (thus, this theorem is useless for analyzing
an u,ibalanced bridge ·circuit), and it only works where the underlying equations are linear (no
i:nathematical powers or roots))he requisite of linearity means that Superposition Theorem is
only applicable for determining voltage and current, not power!!! Power dissipations, being
nonlinear functions, do not algebraically add to an accurate total when only one source is
considered at a time. The need for linearity als9 means this Theorem cannot be appHed ;.i :::-::...::~
where the resistance of a component changes with voltage or current. Hence, networks containing
components like )_amps (incandescent or gas-discharge) or Varistors could not be analyzed.
•J.(hother prerequisite for. Superposition Theorem is that all components must be -~bilateral,"
meaning that they behave the same with electrons flowing either direction through them. Resistors
have no polarity-specific behavior, and so the circuits we've been stu.dyin~ so far all rneet this
criterion.
~he Superposition Theor~m. finds use in the study of ~ltemating current (AC) circuits, and
semiconductor (amplifierYcircuits, where sometimes AC is often mixed (superimposed) with DC.
B\::i:ausc :'\C voltage and current equations (Ohm's Law) are linear just like DC, we can use
Superposition to analyze the circuit with just the DC power source, then just the AC power source,
co1nbining the .results to . tell wJrnt \viii happen with both AC and DC sources in effect. F·or now
though, Superposition will suffice as a break from having to do simultaneous equations to analvz; .,
a circuk
'
 ...
f\ r
I I .a) I

e I
\
I
I •

'- tCircuit Diagram: ' '

. l ·,
\

Circuit 1 I
lI ,.

. . • l
.; • '
' • ·-• i .

R3..
. . •.·
..
.
• I
, '

,.
,· '
,>

tircuit 2
\'
-~
....--
- ,,,..
I
•h I ., ) .,
.....
\ .

\
/: Rl
l

r h
I f
R2 .
.. v~ ' ' .'
1
.. - '

"(''
t
t
R3 ~-
I ,·'\ /,

a .\ ,
' ,,
'--, •
t' ·'
'
,. ' ..
G,...

II
Il II ' , ::, I2 II

•1 h"
t--\1 I R3
I\
,. I

I ,<;,
' • \ r)

' _.,,.. -,,

•'Procedur,!:
' } r-·
·1
·I
i,. / " 1.• Kee;tiln~fl__the Power supply :11he Superposition Theorem Experimental Kit. • I
9 I 2. Connect Multi"meteN_o the Voltage port (Positive wire with Positive port and Common s
l
•.-. I wire with negative port)"& Set'lnput ~oltage '!1 to 10 V by the use of Potentiomet•~r amt , l

t19 Input Voltage V2 to 8V by us~f Potentiometer. . .

3. Connect three resistance RI, R2,'$..._according to the circuit diagram l with Input voltage -l
6
1111" \ source V1 and V2 by the help of Connecting Wire:
,9 . 4. ·Check the connection is being made properly.
1
_. - 1 5. Turn on Power supply of the Superposition Theorem Experimental Kit.
..,. 6. Measure current flowing from each resistance by connecting multi metr:r probe in series·.
- wit'hht e res1s' tance. _ , 1 f1 • '7' '•'\ ), .

..
• ·, •• 7. Record the Current Value appeared on the ~ulti Meter. !.- ..,, ?, !1 l,~-- s· .\ ,
If S. Repeat the steps 1 to 7 for at least two r~admgs. i _"\ ~- 1_ _1 \ ·_-._. t -~- •.· . ._ 1
\) \ \) I'\ t \ • ~- _:< l I_ I, • _ I •• . , ·, •
-,.• ' ,' ' ., ;' . ,: '· . : \ •
li'l"' !" -~· \ , ' ',. t \ .,
__.a
jl!l!!II"
\ t, ',J , .~ 1() < ,, ('}~ 1-T" ··,· ) ._· t
'{,.
>
"1.'-.. '';.
'. \ .. ·t• • rr .. r . ,1 :
'

I
·.•··. '•
,I'
,,.. -~ .,J
") • 'f,. • i ,,..,,.I~
"' 1
.... mb,.!!!lie!!!lm!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!l!!!!!!!!!!!m!!~~~!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!~~!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!~!!!!!!!!!!!~~~-., -
• , ,. •.. !!!!!I:'~-~
·~•9-~~~~I!!'.!!'!!-!!!!!!!!!~~!!!!!!!!-:'
• ;•- ! •
#.
J

,~ ,... f, -:. )·'1\ '~·.:·- :,,,~t- .S<•~~-/:,.· -···

' ... ,
. ....)
,
•• ,> ,:, >
-. ·.!
~·
·,-•.,:'.· .·::·.,
' .

. ) , ;.o... •.. -~,:·, .

,, I •. , • } I .i,Ji .;' •
r-,.•
J r;
\~)

O_&servation Table:
l1-. f)- ~'3 heat % Error
Sr. Input l1 h b l1' h' h' l1" h" b" Ju.:ftl heat
. .
-
No. =l1'-l1" =h"- h' =b'+ h"
Volta• geI .. h b
' C l1
v(<y>r~ ' • ' .
-
/ ' ' '
1

.. n 10 V
2 8V
I I .... '
'
3 6V

Calculation:
Input Current-s are I1, b. and b
I

I
Calculated Current !J.K) 1
I{ -= E,
Calculated Curr ent.( /2c) 12 I'
I

Calculated Current (/3c), I~+ I~' J •

\ )
. .
9U!Jient) x 100
%E rror = (Caloulated Current) - (Input.
. Ippu t Current •

Precaution:
/ 1. Keep turn off Power supply during connections.
2. Connec~ all the connect~g wires properly.
connection.
3. Turn on Power supply only after cross checking the
4. Record all the readings carefuny.

..
Result:
and calculate
lfuc e we study _and_perform Superpo~ition Theorem
Min% Err - - - -

--• Max o/o Err - - - -

Application:. "-- "· --- . . .

-
mining
The ,{quisite of linearity m~ns that Superp~sition Theorem is -only applicable for deter
"' rposition Theorem finds use in the study. of
voltage and current, not power!!·k ... The Supe
(amplifie.r) circuits, \.Vherc sometimes AC is
~-- alternating current (AC) circuits, and semiconductor
often mixed (superimposed) with DC. .

~-
i,
··•
.# .I',
~--

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~I
 Experin1ent 4

Title: Study, Perform & Verify Thevenin's Theorem on Experimenta.l Kit.

Apparatus: Thevenin's Transfer Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires, Multi meter

Theory:
-
L Thevenin's Theorem.
. Anv., combination of batteries and resistances with two tenninals can be
replaced by a single voltage source e and a single series resistor r. The value ·of e· is the open circ~it
voltage at the terminals, and the value of r is e divided by the current withthe terminals short
circuited. •

In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circµit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance·
(or impedance) connected to a load. )
Thcvenin's Theorem is especially'"'useful in ·the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and
other interconnected resistive. circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the
circuit. •
Thevenin~s equivalent circuit.

7 r--·-------1 ,\
Alinear ,_., l
Network I ·-.... ·~.
Containing I R,_ l~I
j
Several emf's 1
and I CJ I
Resistances ~---·! 8 • I

L---~-- -·- .. ~ - - - /
----
·--·-- -·---~----- ·-·- ~---·•--t C
L.i

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex "one-port" nenvork consisting of multiple
resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by. one ~ingle equivalent
resistance Rs and one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back
I into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.
. I

llt!JELUL
 - - - •,

''
Circuit Diagram: .

Rl \
I)

\Jf
/in R3 RL Oh
\
B
Theveriin' s Equivalen t Network
A
RTh

Vin RL IL

,
B \.

-F Procedure:
-
I. Keep tum off the Power supply of the Thevenin's Theorem Experimental-Kit.
2. Connect Multi meter to the Voltage port (Positive wire with Positive port and Common
wire with negative port) & Set.Input Voltage to IO V by the useiof Potentiometer.
3. Connect three resistance RI, R2, R3 and RL according to the circuit diagram with Input
voltage source Vin by the help of Connecting Wire.
4. Record the reading of Load resistance by the help of multi meter.
5. Record the reading of circ1li.t..resistance from the port A-B after short circuiting the voltage
i source and it will be the Thevenin:.s Resistance. . •
r
I
6. Check the connection is beirig made properly.
7. Turn on' ~wer supply of the Thevenin's Theorem Experimental Kit. .
j 8. Measure current llowi~g--..fr()lJl load resistance by connecting multi 1neter probe in series
with the load resistance. /
9. Record the Current Value appeared on the ~.ulti Meter. . 1

I 0. To find Thevenin 's Voltage, Short circuit t.he"\'oltage source term in al and con~ect multi'
meter across the port A-8 after removing load resistance froni the circuit. The measured.
quantity wiH be Thevenin's Voltage. -
11. Repeat the steps 1 to 7 for at least hvo readings. ..
12. Simulate Thevenin 's Equivalent circuit on ·the Experimental, Kit according to the circuit
given in Circuit diagram. • '
J3. Set value of resistance to th~ Thevenin's resistance by the help of Po~entionieter.
I4. Measure load currerit by the help of Multi meter.
 /Observation Table:

Sr. No. Input Voltage RTh Rt VTh IL It' % Error

(Vin) (Load Current in
Equivalent Network)
1 10 V •
2 8V
.,
...
6V

Calculation:

Vrh
h=---
Rrh + RL

011. E (Calculated Current) - (Input Current)

:10 rror = • x 100
Input Current

Precaution:
I. Keep turn off Power supply during connections.
2. Connect all the connecting wires. properly.
3. •Turn on Power supply only after cross checking the connection.
4. Record all the readings carefu11y.
Result:

r-
,.. Hence we study and perform Thevenin's Theorem and successfully Find Load current in the circuit
and verify it from the Thevenin's equivalent circuit.
Application:
..

re
~·
• Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where
one particular resistor in the circuit (called the '~load" resistor) is subject to change, and re-
calculation of the circuit is necessary w·ith each trial value of load resistance, to detennine
/voltage across it and current through it.

.--
• Source modeling and resistance measurement using the Wheatstone bridge provide
app:ktttions for Thevenin 's theorem ..
' ._

•--
-
-
 Experiment 5

~tie: .Study, Perfonn & Verify Nortan's Theorem on Experime~tal Kit.

Apparatus: Nortan's Transfer Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires, Mutti meter
Theory:

C1orton's Theorem. Any collection of batteries and resistances with two terminals is electrically
equivalent to an ideal current source i in parallel with a single resistor r. The value of r is the same
as that in the Thevenin 's equivalent and the current i can be found by dividing the open circuit
voltage by r.

Norton's Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances
,. can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in paralle~ with a Single Resistor"·l
i
As far as- th_e load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
•resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the
~hort circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.
A.

lr8
I "
I
tI A Linear
Netvvork
A

·•( \
j ,,
tB
l R
containing R:. ,....
\
Rs
several ene~gy A

sources and
res?stances l~r
I .--.
.... 0
s
,.,,----

The value of this ·\:onstant ~ttrrent'' is one which wouJd flow if the hvo output terminals where
shdrted together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals,
(the same as Thevenin).
Circuit Diagram:

Rl 13 IL

Vin
 l
•
I

Norton'.s E..quivalent
• . • Circuit t

IL

RN -RL l
•
\

Procedure:
I. Keep turn off the Power supply of the Norton's Theorem Experimental Kit
2. C~nne~t Multi meter to the Voltage port (Positive wire with Positi~e po~ and Common
. n ga 1ve port & Set Input Voltage to 10 V by the use of Potentiometer.
wire with e f
3. Connect ) R1, R2, R3 and RL
three re~istance according to the circuit diagram with Input
voltage source Vin by the help of Connecting-Wire.
4. Record the reading of Load resistance by the help Of multi meter.
5. Record the reading of circuit resistance from the port A-B after short circuiting the voltage
source and it will be the Norton's Resistance.
6. Check the connection is being made properly.
7. Turn on Power supply of the Norton's Theorem Experimenµil Kit.
8. Measure current nowing from load resistance by connecting multi meter probe in series

with the load resistance.

9. Rec•xd the Current Value appeared on the Multi Meter.
IO. To find Norton's Current, Short circuit the voltage source terminal and connect multi meter
in series with port A-B after removing load resistance from the circuit. The measured

quantity will be Norton's Current.

11. Repeat the steps I to 7 for at least two readings.
12. Simulate Norton's Equivalent circuit on the fo:perimental Kit• according
• • • • ,
to the circuit given
in Circuit
I3_Set diagram.
viii ue of resistance, to_the Norton·s resistance by the help of•Potenttometer
•• .
14. Measure load current by the help of Multi meter.

o·bservation Table: --- % Error

IL'

Vo-
IL
\

RL
l
IN , (Loacl Current in
1tage
1
RN Equivalent Network)
Input ,,
--- -
,r -
Sr. ,,o. (ViP) '-

L--I- - - - 1 - IO V - "
,___------
.
--
- -
.

i__2.!.--_- -if---~-sv
L3~-_1.-_.:.-__..:..6_Y__. _
 Calculation:
~--1NJ1J:5- --
Ii= R"N+ RL J
1
0¾E (Calculated Current) - (Input Current).
o rror = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100
Input _Current

Precaution:
5. Keep turn off Power supply during connections.
6. Connect all the connecting wires properly.
7. Turn on Power supply only after cross checking the connection.
8. Record all the readings carefully.
Result:
-
/ Hence we study and perform Norton's Theorem and successfully Find Load current in the ~ircuit
and verify it f~om the Norton's equivalent circuit.
..,\pplication:
• Norton's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where one
._,,;- particular resistor in the circuit (called the· "load" resistor) is subject to change~ and re-
calculation of the circuit i~- necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine
voltage across it and current through it. <
• Source modeling and resistance measurement using the Wheatstone bridge provide
applications for Norton's theorem.

- - - - -' - - -
 Experiment 6

Title: Study, Perform & Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem on Experimental Kit.
Apparatus: Maximum Power Transfer Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires, Multi meter
Theory:
In_ electrical engineering,(!_he maximum power transfer theorem states t~at, to obtain maximum
external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of the load must equal
t~e resistance of the source as viewed from its output terminals) . _

rl_[when we connect a load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the power source, the
'. / ::pedance of the load will vary from an open-circuit state to a short-circuit state resulting in the
power being absorbed by the load becoming dependent on the impedance of the actual power
source. Then for the load resistance to absorb the maximum power possible it has to be "Matched"
• to the iiupedance of the power source and this forms the ba~is of Maxi mum Po"."er Trans~ .
fhe Ma~imum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis ~ethod to ensure that
/Jie maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the load
-j resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship·between the load
impedance a_nd the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power in the loadj

I Theve,~in s Equivalent Circuit.

I •
A
•
I
I
i

lI

In our Thevenin equivalent circuitJabove, the maximum power transfer theorem states that "the
maximum amount oj-power wil( be dissipated in t_he load resistance if it is eqµalj_n_ value to the·
Thevenin or Norton source resistance ofthe network supplying the power". •

I'
In other words, ~·load resistance resulting in greatest power diss!Pation must be equal in value
to the equivalent Thevenin source resistanc~, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or
I

I.
I
I
 higher in value than-the Thevenin. sour~e resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be
less than maximu~ .

Circuit Diagram:

R;n

'
,. 'RL

I'
0
IL

Procedure:
l. Keep turn off the Power supply of the Maximum Power Transfer Th_eorem Experimental
Kit. .
2. Connect Multi meter to the Voltage port (Positive wire· with Positive port and Common
wire with negative port) & Set Input Voltage to IO V by the use of Potentiometer.
3. Connect two resistance RI, RL according to the circuit diagram with Input voltage source
·VI by the help of Connecting Wire_.
I
4. Check the connection is being made properly.
''
I
5. Tum on Power supply of the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Experimental Kit.
I
'
I 6. rv1easure current flowing from load resistance by connecting multi meter probe in serie~
with the resistance. · \
j :.
'7
Record the Current Value appeared on the Multi Meter.
8. Repeat the steps I to 7 for at least two. ~eadings.
'
I .
.
Observation Table:
.
Sr. No. Input Voltage (Y,) Rt IL p = IL1RL I
-
R;n

,/
"-
r-"""-- '-
•
I '- V11\. 4!'" r~
2 ------~ ---- - 2 \( I

3 1>: ~' OUc.

-·-·-
4 JO V ~)."- --:--- ~K
-
s· - - -.. ..,.__
t"A )I.. '-"'
Ji I ")t_ j(.
6 ..
7
·-
8 I
~, f

-
b
Calculation:
Power,P = liRL
2 •

Draw Graph between Load Resistance Vs Power. The ideal waveform of Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem is shown below.

-a P-3wer
iOO
90 ; •,
I
•
I
. .
,....,..-
Max1mu,r, Power 1s
_-.· z Transferr~c! v/h~r,
...--:=-- R
I
"=--
a
-
i:>!1

••
80 j
!
70 '
GO .
50
40
30 ,

-
2(} ;
:C
•• Ct - - •~-- · · - - - - ·--·-------- -· __.rrs

• • ':-0- 2cl :c -to

(9
5C GO
Lood Res1slan Cl:l
7C zc 9C ,a(f '

• '
/

Precaution:
• l. Keep turn off Power supply during connections.
2. Connect all the connecting wires properly.
/
3. Turn on Power supply only after cross checking the connection.
4. Record all the readings carefully.

Result:
Hence we study and perform Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and successfully dra,v P
Vs Load Resistance graph.

Application:
• Jn communication system, 1naximum power transfer is always sought. For example 1n public
acfdress system, the circuit is adjusted for maximum power transfer by making load resistance
(speake-r) ,~~~al to the source ·resistance (amplifier). When source and load have the same
resistance, thcy,-ar~8:id to be matched.
• In car engines, the power delivered
'
to the starter motor of the car will depend upon the effective
•

resistance of the motor and the"intemal resistance of the battery. If the two resistances are
equal, maximum pov.'er will be transferred to the motor to tum to the engine.
 Expe rime nt 7 /
./

Title: Study, Perfon:n & Ver1fy Reciprocity Theorem on Experimental Kit.

Multi meter _
Apparatus: Reciprocity Theor~m Experimental Kit, Connecting Wires,
Theory: I

.I
(Reciproc~ty Theorem states that- In any branch ofa network
or circuit, the currellt I
current through
'tfue to a single source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the·
e is again put
that branch in which the source was originally placed when the .sourc
in the branch in which the current was originally obtained:'. 1
1

ge source and
In many electrical networks it ·is found. that if the positi•o~i of volta
. It is not clear
itmm_'tte~ are inJerchanged, the reading. of ain1neter remains the; same
ct~d, to a pass~re
to you. Let's explain it \in lfetails. Suppose-a vo'ltage source,,is conn~
rk_ to indicate \be
. , r-n~twork:· and ap ammeter is co~nected to other part of the ~etwo
and voltage source I
,. . I
,. response. NO\\' any one ~nterchange~- t~e positions of am~neter i
ork wh,ere the I
that means he or she connects the voltage source at the part of the netw I
netwprk where the
,_ amm~ter was ..,connect~d and connects ammeter to that P311 of the
I • ,l i.•

s current thr~ga~
I voltage source was· c_dnnected: .The respons.,ef ~{. t~e .fil!lm~ter n1e~
'e the property of
I
the ammeter would· be the same in both the· ca~es. This is wh1er
this reciprocal
--, I reciprocity comes in the circuit. The particular circuit that has
obeys reciprocity
property, is caJJed reciprocal circuit. This type of circuit perfectly
I

theor em.) •
used in this theorem must be ideal. That means
The voltage source and. the ammeter must be zero. The
the internal resistance of both the voltage source and ammeter
every complex
reciprocal circuit may be a simple or complex network~ But
netw_ork. ( is per
reciprocal passiv_e nehvork can be simplified into· a simple
and output current
reeiprocity theorem, in a linear passive network, supply voltage V
l I are mutually transferable./
em·'c·~ easiiy be
The ratio· of V arid I is called the transfer resistance. 'fhe theor
understood by this following example.

/: • J /

, / .•
I. ---·---- ----
.
- ··
 rm li1P ,4; i:: 11 •
a, t ,

r
A ,-·----·-··-- - C A C
r--•-: . •-··- ~----

~[
I

I ! , !
I

!+
, V Network (f \ ( )
/ t•'•\
Net\vork
+
',\..T) I V-r
iI -I
1· .. J ·/ l

•·
L

B i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -· --~· - D
.. 1.
B D
Circuit Diagram:
Before Change Af~er Change

R4 R4

Rl R2 Rl R2
Vin
R3 • R3

r Rl R2
,-p_
A R3·
~.
B R4
Vl
"-
"'

Procedure:
I. Keep turn off the Power supply of the Reciprocity Theorem Experimental Kit.
2. Connect Mult.i _ineter to the Voltage port (~os.itive wire with Positive port and Common
wire with negative port) & Set Input-Voltage to ·10 V by the use of Potention1eter.
3. Connect input voltage through A-B port and multi meter with C-D port.
4. ·Check the connection is being made properly.
5. Tum on Power supply of the Reciprocity Theorem Experimental Kit.
-

series with the

6. Measure current flowing from C-D port by connecting multi meter probe in
~esistance. Write this reading in column of Before Change in observation tabJe.
7. Record the Current Value appeared on the Multi Meter.
8. Connect Input Voltage to C-D Port
series with the
9. Measure current flowing from A-B port by connecting multi meter probe in
resistance. Write this reading in column of After Change in observation table.
I0. Repeat the steps 1 to 9 for at least two readings.

Observation Table:
After Change
!I Sr. No. Before Chan2e
Voltage Current Voltage
..
Current
% Error

1.
I
IO\! '

2. 8V ,
3. 6 V,, ' . .
,

Calculation:
(Calculated
___ Curre
___ (Inpu t Curre nt)
nt) - _;_____ _ x
0>/oError = ___ 100
Input Current .

•Precaution:
I. Keep tum off Power sµpply during connections.
2. Connect all the connecting wires properly.
3. Tum on Power supply only after cross checking the connection.
4. Record all the readings carefully.
Result: s

Hence we study and perform Reciprocity Theorem successfu1Jy.

\
I ( ,
Q,..J' •
r'
r~ ~--1 Ir

._ --
\l.,; V
V1. t/ \,,Al--

. -

Exper iment 8
V
II l
••
.
Title: Study~ Perforn1 & Verify Open Circuit Test on a Single Phase Transformer
Multi meter,
Appar atus: Auto Transformer, Single Phase Transformer, Connecting Wires,
Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter
Theor y: '
• @ pen circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determ~ne 'no
loss)' and 'no load current 10'. The circuit diagram for open circuit test is sho~n
load loss (core
in the figure below.
windin g is connected
Usually hi~ voltage (HY) winding is kept open_and the low .vQl,tage (LV)
. to its normaf supply. . '
The connecti(?n diagram for open circuit test on transfo 'rmer; is shown in the figure. A v~ltm~ter,
' The voltage at
wattmeter, .and an ·ahuneter are connected in LV side of the•transformer as shown.
variable ratio auto
rated frequency is appli~d. to that LV side with the help ~f a v~riac of
transfonner. • ..
... \'.:_____ ' .
apptied v.oii.ag~ gets
The HV side (Jf the tr~nsfo nner is. kept open. Now with the help of variac~
lo\\·fy increa~ed_ unti I the voltmeter gives-reading equal to the rated voltage
of the L V side. After
j reaching at rated LV side voltage, aff three insfr~ments reading (V0Jtn1
eter, f\1nmeter and
!
• • • . .. . .. . . • .•
-~attmeter read in~s) ar~ recorded:)
j f~he ammet er readmg gives the no load current I~, As no load current le ts quite
stnall .compared
can be taken as
I rated current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this current that
induced voltage of
I negligible. Since, voltmeter reading.VI can be considered equal to• secondary
.~As the trans1om1\..,
I the tran~:former, the input power during test is indicated by watt-m eter reading
losses in
is open circuited~ there is no output, hence the input power here consists of core
j transto nner and copper loss in transformer during no load condition. But as •
said earlier, the no
copper loss due-to
j ioad current in the transformer is quite small compared to full load current, so
be taken as equal to
the small no load current can be neglected. Hence, the wattmeter reading can
j ,· • ·core losses in transf orm1 Let Lis consider wattmeter reading is Po.
• •

V1
Po= R2 ------ ·-- ...
m.

\\'here Rm is shunt brar1ch resistance of trar.sfonner. u: Zm is shunt branch in:pedance· of

transformer.
 e :r:t

r:'
444 ;;t>,t

'

'
--
- I -
/t

2 2
Then, X 1 )

= ( Zm)2 - ( Rm •._, .,· --.•._•

ri.. ..' 11

-o·
1 )

m
(

/ · 1~
·rh • is conduc ted on LV side
ese values are referred to the LV side of transformer as because the test
multip lying these yalu~s with
of transformer. These values could easily be referred to HV side by
S- ·
l square of transformation ratio. .. ,_ . .(.. .· • , ..

to determine· core losses-in

Therefore, it is seen that thc{open cir~ufrTest _on tran~former i_s us_ed
o-~tran sforme ~ .
transfo rmer and parame ters M"shunt branch ot the equivalent circuit
Ii
.-- \ ,/ ,,012-2-0)1 ,, h;
I

Circuit Dia a~ l l. . I!,:., • b· 1; _---~- ',

!:J_jiz / 2_¾- 0
/~
l"1 1~ , _,_...._ , r. 1' f,'6'~ /
. , V -I, A,,h~ ._
,-:::;;. (\P " • •
2-- I!: I f,
•/7 •. • l I 1 l J, ...-..ii ~~' ~~___ ,_-....s \

I • I J / , . / " ; " " f ' '. .

•(:J • './ .. • a::,. t

I
•
I

• • ·•1 I
' 1 /
• __ s~~Gc:•_ :-' ' _ . 1--Jl ( ~() • •i
-. ->.
. _f ;. , J > • ('f':r • I •

./ '--· '"). ~-"- (t \ . , 'J;f\/ • : ~

""..,_
l
I

Procedur~. y~ ; ; "
I. Keep turn off the Power suppjy of the Auto Tran sform er~- ·2.
-?'
CJ / '};., 2.-0 ·1
/ _ ._ /
f \.)

v
I 2. Connect voltmeter_j!],para1Tel with Auto Transformer. \:sJ
3. No'.v connect Wattmeter according to the Circuit Diagram. • •
' ,
l with inductor and it
4. Wattmeter has four pon M, L, C, V. .rvf and Lis internally connected
-,
I

r and it.is called

is called Curren t Coil. C and V is also internally connected ·with resisto
again connected
Voltage Coil. Connect Mand C po11 with a connecting wir~ and it will be
h the second port
.with one port of Voltmeter. V port of wattmeter will be connected throug

'-·j
~@
of Voltmeter. Connect one port of An1ineter from L port.
Connect Second port of Ammeter from one port of Lower Winding of
N second ~ort of t~an~forn1er _will be connected from secor,d port of Voltin•eter.
Tr~nsfonner

•
. Keep H ,gJ:ter \Y mdmg port of Transformer open.
then turn on the po r
!.'
~- /I' 7. Check all the con'nection according to the Circuit Diagrarn and
suppl) of.Auto transformer: - - ,
. .
1 K ·v /\
. I , t) 8. Set voltage from Autotr ansfr,rmer. , , _
and Ammeter.
9. Record Voltage, Power and Current reading fron1 Volto1eter~ Wattrneter
"J
rvv • ~· •
Observation Table:
•Sr. ~lo. • Volta Pol\'er (Po) I Current (Ic)I Zm.

l
j ==-J-=ra-! -=1 f '3=·,., ~r--__ .__~-= t I
'
I

(
 :i ii id l , M g !t-2t
I
; it

--
~ a Jc u Ja ti o n :

el
0.
&·
--.--.- , ....
le__.
' ,.
.. ,(I •'

Preca II tion:
,.
. .. 'l~ ., ·•~.
~1(5,
~

tio ns. ~- ··
ff Pow e~ supp ly during connec • · ' < ' ·
I. Keep tum o connecting wires properly. -Jo•~ 1
2. Connect all
the
s checking the co
nnectfo...
~ · ,- :; -_ .; -· ·
j
te r cros _ -- ~
3. Tum on Pow
R ecorda ll_t
er supply
hereadings
on
ca
ly
re
af
full y. r 1 -. M ~ O
~ . .._
•
"J,~
r •
4.
{) .. 'o O uo
,.,. -.. -za .,,_ ,.
Res1•sf!D.ce •--'
'
, - t) -.
'
ResuJI: V ev alu~ e Slmnt '
A nd '
I
•
est successfuHy.
i
Open Circuit T fonner. .0 ,;
and pe rfor rn
j pe da
y
Hence we stud e and Shunt Reactance ofTra
nc
ns
:~o~O~
•L
Shunt_ Im
.--
• f
'
I

Alo
j •
_ ·, f ~..6-1-. -fr-
I
> -:.
j _ _____,1rt' ~ 1 r . . w
-, 0
I
i
• I

I 'fk ·.
f ~o fl.. o. '. ; .. }o
.....
,.

l~
o
- --~--
1 ~ -
' ]
 r 5t

Experiment 9

I Title: Study, Perfonn &_ Verify Short Circuit Test on a Single Phase Transformer.
meter,
Apparatus: Auto Trans.fonner, Single Phase Transfonner, Connecting Wires, Multi
Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter •
I
Theory: I
I
tage (LV)
(!he test is conducted on the high-voltage (HY) side of the transformer where the low-vol - I
r is
side or the secondary is short circuited. A wattmeter is connected to the primary. An ammete

.-_
connected in series with the primary winding.
voltmeter,
The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure. A
voltage at
wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HY side of the transfonner as shown. ·The

,.... I
rated frequency is applied to that HY side with the help of variac of variable
transformer.
.The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of variac applied
ratio auto

voltage is

-
side. After
slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading equal to the rated current of the HY
and Watt-
reaching at rated current of HY side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter
full load
meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent of
ner is quitej
current I~ Al the_ v~ltage applied for full load current in short circuit test on transfon
$ small compared to the rated primary voltage of the transformer, the core losse~ in transfon
ner can
l be taken as negligible here. •
ter reac.iiub.
Let's say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is indicated ~y watt-me
consists of
As the transformer is short circuited, there is no output; hence the input power here
in the
copper l03ses in transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage
small

--
loss due to the
transformer and hence it is quite small compared to rated volt.age, so core
to copper •
applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal

•-
•
losses in transformel Let us consider wattmeter reading is.Psc.
.
!J
Psc = Relf
-~-

••
Psc
. Re =1-
2
L
me~.
Where Re is equivalent resistance of transfonner. If, Zeis equivalent impedance of transfor

-- Ze = Vsch
Therefore, if equivalent reactance of transformer is Xe
Then,X; =z:· -R;

ra
r rJ

~hese _values are referred to the HV side of transformer as because the.test is conducted on HV
side of transformer. These values could easily be referred to LV side by dividing these values with
square of transformation ratio.
Therefore, it is seen that the short circuit test on transformer is used to det~rmine copper Joss in
transformer at full load and parameters of approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.
Circuit Diagram: . G, ._,,.-u /1

·:·.1•:.t-.:1°1-.et
r------ ,--...;;;;r--a...Jr..-.-111 .µ

AC '"\,
Sourer.?

Cv
Procedure:
.1. Keep turn off the Power supply of the Auto Tran.sformcr.
2. Connect Ammeter in series with Auto Transformer.
3. Now connect Wattmeter according to the Circuit Diagram.
4. Wattmeter has four port M, L, C, V. !Vf and Lis internally connected with inductor a]Jd it
is called Current Coi I. C and V is also internally connected with resistor and it is callP.tf
Voltage Coil. Connect rvI and C port with a connecting wire and it will be again connected
with second port of Ammeter. V port of wattmeter will be connected through the second
port of Voltmeter. Connect one port of Voltmeter from L port.
5. Connect Second port of Voltmeter from one port of Higher Winding of Transformer and
I
second port of transformer will be connected from second port of Voltmeter. And it. will
be connected through second port of Autotransformer.
..
Ifj ,~"-·
, 6. Keep Lower Winding Side Short Circuited.
7. Check al.I the conn~ction according to the Circuit Diagram and then tum 1on the power
supply of.Auto -transformer.
8. Set voltage from Autotransformer.
9. Record Voltage~ Power and ~urrent reading from Voltmeter, Wa~meter and Ammeter.
j
Observation--]'able:
Sr. No. V0Ua2c_....,,1Vsc) Power (Psc) Current UL) Re
.~
Ze Xe
____,
---:!

- -
'
r~, SC>$
rr-wr ;.: ' ~ 5 1' :;,;:tr,

'==. Calculation:

Psc = Rell
Psc
Re = --r-
lL
=Vsch
- ---
Ze
==- Then, x: = z: - R:

•-- Precaution:
1. Keep turn off Power. supply during connections.

,_
2. Connect all the connecting wires properly.
3. Turn on Power. supply on.ly after cross checking the connection.-
4. Record all the readings carefully.
Result:

- Hence we study an_d perform Short Circuit Test.successfully. And evaluate Equivalent Resistance,
Equivalent Impedance and Equivalent R~actance of Transformer .

•
•• /
so
,

•• '-¼
•
( .
t
 .,.,
- wt * t ( -• - 1 I 't f

Experiment 10

Title: To find the Polarity and Tu~s Ratio of a Single Phase Transformer.
Apparatus: Auto Transformer, Single Phase Transfonner, Connecting Wires, M~lti meter,
Voltmeter, Ammeter, \\lattmeter
'Theory:
(__ Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the prima,-Y and the second3?' winding of
t~e transfonner.- lf the ·two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polanty should be
known for the proper connection of the transfonner. There are. two types of polarity one
is Additive, and another is Subtractive.

Additive
I
, ....... ·~---·,.-----·---·--•_, ,,,·
Polarity
; . .
,_ - - ·~ - - - - • ·• - - -.. ·- - • - J o • • . , ~
•• _!Subtractive
·,.. ____ . ---------··- --~--

. A~ditive Polarity: In additive polarity the same tenninals of the primary and the. secondary
windings of the transformer a~e ~onnected.·
)

, Subtractive Polarity: In sub~ractive polarity different terminals of the primary and secondary side
of the transformer is connected. ,
. . I
IL is essentially to know polarity at any instant of primary and secondary terminal for making
correct connections. When the two transformer are to be connected in parallel to share the load on
the system. The marking is correct if voltage V3 is less than V 1, such a polarity is termed as
subtractive polarity. The standard practices are to have subtractive polarity because it reduces the •
voltage stress between adjacent loads. In case V3>V1, the EMF induced in primary and secondary
,, . have addit~ve relation alld transformers said to ha~~ additive pol~ityj
To detennme whether a transformer possesses add1ttve or subtractive polanty~ we connect the high
voltage winding to an AC s~urce. A jumper is connected betv,een any two adjacent HV and LV
terminals, and a voltmeter is connected between the other two adjacent HV and LV terminals (Fig
I)
 omni lb, '.itJ ?

... - \
.•
I I
'1 (. -i

I
...•
•
X
'l ._
I •
;, - .. •
\ T
.LV
" .,
I.

J
I
HV 2
e 1
•
""
H2 X

r-
~-
t '
Jumper
• I

Figure 1
M
If the voltmeter gives a higher reading than the source voltage, the polarity is additive. This tells

: us that H1 and X1 are diagonally opposite (Fig.2). On the other hand, if voltmeter reads less t~an
the source voltage, the polarity is subtractive; and terminals H1 and X1 are adjacent. (Fig.3)

•-
-
-- Jumper
Jumper

•-~ Figure 2
Figure 3

.-
In this polarhy test, the jumper effectively connects the secondary voltage in series with the
primary voltage. Consequently, the secondary voltage either adds or subtracts from the primary
voltage, depending on the polarity.
. In making the po!arity test, an ordinary 120V, 60 Hz source can be connected to the HV winding,
ra even though its rated voltage may be much higher. •

a
 •t ,t?ti P, u e ,

ri :itfF:v •1 ,_ z

- v~-::. v1..+v¥9
V - V -·V.

\,

••
-- Vl
I
, I
•.i
-J- '

-- 'i,,1-0~, ..· '\ \ 0 .J

, A!JTO '!lf'

-- e . 0 A ~7
•
.
• / .

•• Procedure: 1 \f'(b{)c • ~\ \ 1

(f
•• z_ (:.) lJ )/,_
' f,.,.,-....,. (V \~ , L - - ~ - - , -
J_. :oJarity Test:
'J - ' l!-:

-
'.: (i:o~nect the circuit as showncin the diagra . -tJ )
\ ')_
Switch on the single phase ac supply.

Pv
11.
ity is subtractive. - .:- .
111. Record the voltages VJ, V2 and V3. In case V3<VJ polar
V3> VI polarity is additive.
ct iv. Repeat the step3 after connecting terminals A J and a2.
./
a v. Switch off the ac supply.
"

-- --0
2. Turn Ration Test:
t. Connect the circuit as shown in the dia~a m
11. Switch on the ac supply.
s tapings of secondary.
111. Record voltage VJ across primary and V1 across variou
1v. Jf VJ>V2 then transfonner is step down.

--
If V2> VI then f!ansformer is step up.
-·
v.
vi. , ' Switch off ac supply.

Observation Table:
I I tv
~ r i =.::A V ,- V'l-
I II - V3 == ¥.2 ~'l
I
I
. Sr. No. T VJ - I - V2

''
I

II -

,
_.Add-P.,. olarifY..
I V3 = Vl+V2
Sr. No. VI --
V2 .l
('-
.4) 0 , II --
'

, IP (J
) I ·I b I ' t.;
r-·
'
\
.

--·- l
J
_,
-
,
t • ''"'!.-

,
~-----=~==~~~~~•~t=;~r6=~~~
..
~ =•·~ ~--- --~·

'
Turn Ration
- Sr. No. V2 Turn Rate = V 1N2
VJ '
,4

...
a
-
I

Calcul ation:
• I
1. Polarity Test
If Y3 = VI - V2 Then Subtractive

Vt- 7t'-rJ,2:,·.,
\

If V3 = VJ+V2 Then Additive I •

' 2. Turn Ration I -'=

Nl vY K_;; v - :
K=r

-
-V2
V1
tt-l~
Precaution: ¼., ,..M_J,
I. Keep tum ofT Power supply during connections. •1l'( ;t(_ i • •( \ f .' \ ,f~ ·
2. Connec t all the connect ing wires properly.
3. Turn on Power supply only after cross checking \he connection.
4. Record all the readings carefully.

-Result:
lf V2>V I then Transformer is step up otherwise step down.
I,
Discussion:
The turns ration of transformer is greater than one if it is step up transformer and less thanr one if
c. er.
• step down trans,orm
1t• 1s
, t

l
'