DEPARTMENT

OF

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

WIRELESS MOBILE NETWORKS

UNIT III
UNIT III GENERATION OF CELLULAR SYSTEMS: Introduction to GSM- Frequency Bands
and Channels- Frames in GSM- Planes and layers of GSM- Protocols- Localization and calling-
Handoff – Short messaging system- GPRS EDGE- 3G CELLULAR Systems,MMS- 3G
CELLULAR Systems MMS- Handover- Satellite System Infrastructure- GEO, LEO, MEO-
Limitations of GPS- GPS Beneficiaries of GPS- 4G Cellular systems- 4G Standards (LTE/WiMax).

INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR NETWORKS

Digital cellular networks are the segment of the market for mobile and wireless devices which are
growing most rapidly. They are the wireless extensions of traditional PSTN or ISDN networks and
allow for seamless roaming with the same mobile phone nation or even worldwide. Today, these
systems are mainly used for voice traffic. However, data traffic is continuously growing and
therefore, these are handled by several technologies for wireless data transmissions
 AMPS(Advanced Mobiles Phone System) à1G
 GSM, TDMA, CDMA, and PDC (Personal Digital Cellular) and PCS (Personal
Communication System) are all second generation systems.
 Examples for second generation (2G) mobile phone networks- GSM, GPRS à2.5GNetworks
 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) and TERTA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio)
examples for cordless telephony and trunked radio systems.
 UMTS example forà3G mobile telecommunication networks.
 2Gà1990’s to 2000, 2.5Gà 2001 to 2004, 3Gà2004to 2015, 4Gà2010 – 2020, 5G now

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is at present being used in India. It is possibly
the most successful digital mobile system to have ever been used till now. An important
characteristic of the GSM system is that it provides data services in addition to voice services, and yet
is compatible to 1G system. GSM networks operate in four different radio frequencies. Most GSM
networks operate either in the 900 MHz or in the 1800 MHz frequency bands. Some countries in the
American continent (especially the USA and Canada) use the 850 MHz and 1900MHz bands
because the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequency bands are already allocated for other purposes. The
rarely used 400 MHz and 450 MHz frequency bands in some countries, notably Scandinavia these
frequencies were previously used for the first generation systems. In the 900 MHz band, the uplink
frequency band is 890–915 MHz, and the downlink frequency band is 935–960 MHz
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Performance characteristics of GSM :

 Communication
 Mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services
 Total mobility
 International access, chip-card enables use of access points of different
providers
 Worldwide connectivity
 One number, the network handles localization
 High capacity
 Better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell
 High transmission quality
 High audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at
higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
 Security functions
 Access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

Disadvantages of GSM:

 There is no perfect system!!

• No end-to-end encryption of user data
• No full ISDN bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel
 Reduced concentration while driving
 Electromagnetic radiation
 Abuse of private data possible
 Roaming profiles accessible
 High complexity of the system
 Several incompatibilities within the GSM standards

GSM Services
GSM provides three main categories of services. These are: (i) Bearer services (ii) Teleservices

(iii) Supplementary services. In the following, we elaborate these different categories ofservices.

Bearer services:

Bearer services give the subscribers the capability to send and receive data to/from remote
computers or mobile phones. For this reason, bearer services are also known as data services.
These services also enable the transparent transmission of data between GSM and other networks
like PSTN, ISDN, etc. at rates from 300 bps to 9600 bps. These services are implemented on the
lower-three layers of the OSI reference model. Besides supporting SMS, e-mail, voice mailbox, and

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Internet access, this service provides the users with the capability to execute remote applications.
GSM supports data transfer rates of up to 9.6 kbps.

Figure 3.1.1 Reference Model for GSM Services

Figure 2.1.1 shows the reference model for GSM services.

The Mobile station MS is connected to GSM public Land Mobile Network via a Um interface.
This network is connected to Transit ISDN or PSTN. The Bearer services permit either transparent
or non-transparent, and either synchronous or asynchronous modes of data transmission. We
elaborate these in the following.

 The transparent bearer services use the functions of the physical layer of transmission of
data leading to constant delay and throughput if no transmission errors occur. There is a
mechanism called FEC (Forward Error Correction) to increase the quality of data
transmission.
 The non-transparent bearer services use protocols of the second and third layers to
implement error correction and flow control. They use transparent bearer services in
addition to a Radio Link Protocol (RLP). This protocol comprises mechanisms of high
level data link control.

Tele services:
GSM provides both the voice-oriented teleservices and the non-voice teleservices, as discussed
below. Telephony: The main goal of GSM was to provide high quality digital voice transmission,
offering the bandwidth of 3.1 kHz of analog phone systems. Special codecs are used for voice
transmission, while other codecs are used for the transmission of analog data for communication
with traditional computer modems used in fax machines.

 Telecommunication services that enable voice communication via mobile phones

 All these basic services have to obey cellular functions, security measurements etc.
 Offered services
• Mobile telephony
primary goal of GSM was to enable mobile telephony offering the traditional
bandwidth of 3.1 kHz
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 • Emergency number
common number throughout Europe (112); mandatory for all service providers; free
of charge; connection with the highest priority (preemption of other connections
possible)
• Multi numbering
several ISDN phone numbers per user possible

 Additional services
 Non-Voice-Teleservices
 Group 3 fax-two data is transmitted as digital data over the analog telephone
network.
 Voice mailbox (implemented in the fixed network supporting the mobile
terminals)
 Electronic mail (MHS-Message Handling System, implemented in the fixed
network)
 Short Message Service (SMS)
 Alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal (160 characters)
using the signalling channel, thus allowing simultaneous use of basic services
and SMS (almost ignored in the beginning now the most successful add-on!)

Emergency number: The same number is used throughout an area. This service is free of cost and
mandatorily provided by all service providers. This connection will automatically be set up with the
closest emergency centre.

Short message services: This service offers transmission of text messages of sizes up to 160
characters. SMS services use the signaling channels, making possible the duplex system of the
sending and receiving the SMSs messages.

Fax: In this service, using modems fax data is transmitted as digital data over the analog telephone
network according to the ITU-T Standards T.4 and T.30.

Supplementary services: GSM provides certain supplementary services such as useridentification,

call redirection, and forwarding of ongoing calls. In addition, standard ISDN features such as ‘close
user groups’ and ‘multiparty’ communication are available.

 Services in addition to the basic services, cannot be offered stand-alone

 Similar to ISDN services besides lower bandwidth due to the radio link
 May differ between different service providers, countries and protocol versions
 Important services
• Identification: forwarding of caller number
• Suppression of number forwarding
• Automatic call-back
• Conferencing with up to 7 participants
• Locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing calls)

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System Architecture of GSM
A GSM system consists of three main subsystems:

(i) Radio Subsystem (RSS)

(ii) Networking and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
(iii) Operation Subsystem (OSS)
(iv) A schematic of the functional architecture of a GSM system is shown in Fig. 2.1.2.
Thedifferent components of this architecture are briefly explained in the following.

Figure 3.1.2 Functional Architecture of a GSM System

Radio subsystem (RSS)

This subsystem comprises all the radio specific entities. That is, the mobile stations, the base station
subsystems, the base transceiver station and the base station controller. We brieflyexplain the
important components of the radio subsystem in the following:

Mobile Station (MS):

A mobile station (MS) or cell phone contains two major components: the subscriber identity module
(SIM) and the mobile device. The SIM is a removable smart card. Each mobile device has a
unique identifier that is known as its IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity). Apart from
the telephone interface, an MS also offers other types of interfaces to the users suchas USB,
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Bluetooth, etc. Despite its small size, a SIM card is a very important component of a GSM network.
It contains all the subscription information of a subscriber and holds the key information that
activates the phone after it is powered on. It contains a microcontroller to primarily store and retrieve
data from the flash storage on the SIM. Identification information is stored in the SIM card’s
protected memory (ROM) that is not accessible or modifiable by the customer.

Additional flash memory is included in the mobile device to allow storage of other information such
as addresses, pictures, audio and video clips, and short messages. The SIM card contains many other
identifiers and tables such as card type, serial number, a list of subscribed services, and a Personal
Identity Number (PIN).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

A GSM network comprises many BSSs. Each BSS consists of a Base Station Controller (BSC) and
several Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs). We will explain these components subsequently. A BSS
performs all functions necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS, as well as does
coding/decoding of voice.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

A BTS comprises all radio equipment such as antenna, signal processors and amplifiers that are
necessary for radio transmission. It encodes the received signal, modulates it on a carrier wave, and
feeds the RF signals to the antenna. It communicates with both the mobile station and the BSC.

Base Station Controller (BSC):

A BSC manages the radio resource of the BTSs in the sense that it assigns frequency and time slots
for all MSs in the area. It also manages the handoff from one BTS to another within the BSS. The
BSC also multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network connection to the Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC).

Network and switching subsystem (NSS)

This subsystem forms the heart of the GSM system. It connects the wireless networks to the
standard public networks and carries out usage-based charging, accounting, and also handles

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roaming. NSS consists of a switching centre and several databases as described below.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

An MSC can be considered to form the heart of a GSM network. An MSC sets up connectionsto
other MSCs and to other networks such as Public Data Network (PDN). An MSC is responsible
for the connection setup, connection release, and call handoff to other MSCs. A Gateway MSC
(GMSC) is responsible for gateway functions, while a customer roams to other networks. It also
performs certain other supplementary services such as call forwarding, multiparty calls, etc.

Home Location Registers (HLRs):

A HLR stores in a database important information that is specific to each subscriber. The
information contains subscriber’s IMSI, pre/post paid, user’s current location, etc.

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

It is essentially a temporary database that is updated whenever a new MS enters its area by roaming.
The information is obtained from the corresponding HLR database. The function of the VLR is to
reduce the number of queries to the HLR and make the user feel as if he were in his home network.

Operation subsystem (OSS)

The operation subsystem contains all the functions necessary for network operation and
maintenance. It consists of the following:

Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC):

It supervises all other network entities. Its functions are traffic monitoring, subscribers, security
management and accounting billing.

Authentication Centre ( AuC ) :

It protects against intruders targeting the air interface. The AuC stores information concerned with
security features such as user authentication and encryption. The AuC is related to the HLR.

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Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

It is essentially a database that is used to track handsets using the IMEI. It helps to block calls from
stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobiles.

GSM PROTOCOLS
The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers depending on the interface,
as shown below. Layer 1 is the physical layer that handles all radio-specific functions. This
includes the creation of bursts according to the five different formats, multiplexing of bursts into
a TDMA frame, synchronization with the BTS, detection of idle channels, and measurement of
the channel quality on the downlink. The physical layer at Um uses GMSK for digital
modulation and performs encryption/decryption of data, i.e., encryption is not performed end-
to-end, but only between MS and BSS over the air interface.

Figure 3.1.3 Protocol architecture for Signalling

The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error detection/correction,
which is directly combined with the coding mechanisms. Channel coding makes extensive use of
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different forward error correction (FEC) schemes. Signalling between entities in a GSM
network requires higher layers. For this purpose, the LAPDm protocol has been defined at the Um
interface for layer two. LAPDm has been derived from link access procedure for the D- channel
(LAPD) in ISDN systems, which is a version of HDLC. LAPDm is a lightweight LAPD because
it does not need synchronization flags or checksumming for error detection. LAPDm offers reliable
data transfer over connections, re- sequencing of data frames, and flow control.

The network layer in GSM, layer three, comprises several sublayers. The lowest sublayer is the
radio resource management (RR). Only a part of this layer, RR’, is implemented in the BTS, the
remainder is situated in the BSC. The functions of RR’ are supported by the BSC via the BTS
management (BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and release of radiochannels.
Mobility management (MM) contains functions for registration, authentication, identification,
location updating, and the provision of a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).

Finally, the call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short message
service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for message transfer using the control
channels SDCCH and SACCH, while SS offers the services like user identification, call
redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls. CC provides a point-to-point connection between two
terminals and is used by higher layers for call establishment, call clearing and change of call
parameters. This layer also provides functions to send in-band tones, called dual tone multiple
frequency (DTMF), over the GSM network. These tones are used, e.g., for the remote control of
answering machines or the entry of PINs in electronic banking and are, also used for dialing in
traditional analog telephone systems.

Additional protocols are used at the Abis and A interfaces. Data transmission at the physicallayer
typically uses pulse code modulation (PCM) systems. LAPD is used for layer two at Abis,
BTSM for BTS management. Signalling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for signalling between an
MSC and a BSC. This protocol also transfers all management information between MSCs, HLR,
VLRs, AuC, EIR, and OMC. An MSC can also control a BSS via a BSS application part
(BSSAP).

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GSM SECURITY
Security in GSM is broadly supported at three levels: operator’s level, customer’s level and system
level. These three levels help oversee aspects such as correct billing to the customer, avoiding fraud,
protecting services, and ensuring anonymity. The following are a few important features associated
with providing security in GSM networks.

GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AuC and in the
individual SIM. The SIM stores personal, secret data and is protected with a PIN against
unauthorized use. Three algorithms have been specified to provide security services in GSM.
Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5 for encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher
key. The various security services offered by GSM are:

ACCESS CONTROL AND AUTHENTICATION:

The first step includes the authentication of a valid user for the SIM. The user needs a secret PINto
access the SIM. The next step is the subscriber authentication. This step is based on a challenge-
response scheme as shown below:

Figure 3.1.4 Subscriber Authentication

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AUTHENTICATION :
Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual authentication key Ki, the user
identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for authentication A3. The AuC performs the basic
generation of random values RAND, signed responses SRES, and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI,
and then forwards this information to the HLR. The current VLR requests the appropriate values for
RAND, SRES, and Kc from the HLR.

For authentication, the VLR sends the random value RAND to the SIM. Both sides, network and
subscriber module, perform the same operation with RAND and the key Ki, called A3. The MS
sends back the SRES generated by the SIM; the VLR can now compare both values. If they are the
same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise the subscriber is rejected.

The purpose of authentication is to protect the network against unauthorized use. In the GSM
context, it helps protect the GSM subscribers by denying the possibility for intruders to impersonate
authorized users. A GSM network operator can verify the identity of the subscriber, making it highly
improbable to clone someone else’s mobile phone identity. Authentication can be achieved in a
simple way by using a password such as Personal Identification Number (PIN). This method is not
very secure in GSM networks as an attacker can “listen” the PIN and easily break the code.

CONFIDENTIALITY:

A GSM network protects voice, data and sensitive signalling information (e.g. dialed digits) against
eavesdropping on the radio path. Confidentiality of subscriber-dialled information in the GSM
network is achieved by using encryption techniques prescribed by the GSM designers.

Data on the radio path is encrypted between the Mobile Equipment (ME) and the BTS which
protects user traffic and sensitive signalling data against eavesdropping.
All user-related data is encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice,data,
and signalling as shown below.

Figure 3.1.5 Confidentiality

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To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in GSM over the
air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption by applying the cipher
key Kc, which is generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the
algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the MS and the network both calculate the same Kc basedon the
random value RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface. MS and BTS can
now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the cipher key Kc.

ANONYMITY:
A GSM network protects against someone tracking the location of a user or identifying calls made
to (or from) the user by eavesdropping on the radio path. The anonymity of the subscriber on the
radio access link in the GSM network is achieved by allocating Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity (TMSIs) instead of permanent identities. This helps to protect against tracking a user’s
location and obtaining information about a user’s calling pattern.

To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and user identifiers are not
used over the air. Instead, GSM transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is newly assigned
by the VLR after each location update. Additionally, the VLR can change the TMSI at any time.

GSM HANDOVER (Mobility management)

Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the whole service area.
However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM aims at maximum
handover duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover:

1. The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS, decreasing the received signal level
increasing the error rate thereby diminishing the quality of the radio link.

2. Handover may be due to load balancing, when an MSC/BSC decides the traffic is too high in
one cell and shifts some MS to other cells with a lower load.
The four possible handover scenarios of GSM are shown below:

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  Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at
a certain frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency
(scenario 1).
 Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station
moves from one cell to another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC
then performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in the new cell and releases the old
one (scenario 2).
 Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells;
GSM also has to perform handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs. This
handover then has to be controlled by the MSC (scenario 3).
 Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells belonging to
different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover together (scenario 4).
To provide all the necessary information for a handover due to a weak link, MS and BTS
both perform periodic measurements of the downlink and uplink quality respectively.
Measurement reports are sent by the MS about every half-second and contain the quality
of the current link used for transmission as well as the quality of certain channels in
neighboring cells (the BCCHs).

GSM CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT / CALL SETUP

(Localization & Calling)

The fundamental feature of the GSM system is the automatic, worldwide localization of users for
which, the system performs periodic location updates. The HLR always contains information about
the current location and the VLR currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about the
location changes. Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability is called roaming. Roamingcan
take place within a network of one provider, between two providers in a country and also between
different providers in different countries.

To locate and address an MS, several numbers are needed:

 Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN):- The only important number for
a user of GSM is the phone number. This number consists of the country code (CC), the national
destination code (NDC) and the subscriber number (SN).

 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of a subscriber. IMSI consists of a mobile country code (MCC), the mobile network
code (MNC), and finally the mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN).

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 Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): To hide the IMSI, which would give
away the exact identity of the user signalling over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte TMSI for
local subscriber identification.

 Mobile station roaming number (MSRN): Another temporary address that hides the
identity and location of a subscriber is MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request from the
MSC, and the address is also stored in the HLR. MSRN contains the current visitor country
code(VCC), the visitor national destination code (VNDC), the identification of the current MSC together
with the subscriber number. The MSRN helps the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming call.
For a mobile terminated call (MTC), the following figure shows the different steps
that take place:

Figure 3.1.9 Mobile Terminated Call (MTC)

Step 1: User dials the phone number of a GSM subscriber.

Step 2: The fixed network (PSTN) identifies the number belongs to a user in GSM network and

forwards the call setup to the Gateway MSC (GMSC).

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Step 3: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call setup to HLR

Step 4: The HLR checks for number existence and its subscribed services and requests an

MSRN from the current VLR.

Step 5: VLR sends the MSRN to HLR

Step 6: Upon receiving MSRN, the HLR determines the MSC responsible for MS and forwards

the information to the GMSC

Step 7: The GMSC can now forward the call setup request to the MSC indicated
Step 8: The MSC requests the VLR for the current status of the MS

Step 9: VLR sends the requested information

Step 10: If MS is available, the MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for.

Step 11: The btss of all bsss transmit the paging signal to the MS

Step 12: Step 13: If MS answers, VLR performs security checks

Step 15: Till step 17: Then the VLR signals to the MSC to setup a connection to the MS

For a mobile originated call (MOC), the following steps take place:

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 Figure 2.1.10 Mobile Originated Call (MOC)

Step 1: The MS transmits a request for a new connection

Step 2: The BSS forwards this request to the MSC

Step 3: The MSC then checks if this user is allowed to set up a call with the requested and

checks the availability of resources through the GSM network and into the PSTN.

Step 4: If all resources are available, the MSC sets up a connection between the MS and the

fixed network.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS when integrated with GSM, significantly improves and simplifies Internet access. It transfers
data packets from GSM mobile stations to external packet data networks (PDNs). Packets can be
directly routed from the GPRS mobile stations to packet switched networks making it easy to
connect to the Internet. GSM uses a billing system based on the time (duration)of connection,
whereas GPRS uses a billing system based on the amount of transmitted data rather than the duration
of the connection. So, users can remain continuously connected to the system, and yet get charged
only for the amount of transmitted data.

 GPRS extends data capability of GSM and provides connection to external packet data
network through GSM infrastructure with short access time to network for independent
short packets (500-1000bytes)
 It is an enhancement of GSM. It uses same physical channels as GSM and only new logical
GPRS radio channels are defined.
 One to eight radio interface timeslots can be allocated per TDMA frame.
 The active users share time slots and uplink and downlink are allocated separately
 Allocation of GPRS is done dynamically according to “capacity on demand”
 GPRS offers permanent connections to internet with volume based charging that enables
a user to obtain a less expensive connection to the internet.

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  This should also allow for broadcast, multicast and unicast service.
 GPRS MSs are of three types:
• Class A terminals operate GPRS and other GSM services simultaneously
• Class B terminals can monitor all services but operate either GPRS or GSM
• Class C terminals operate only GPRS service.
 Depending on coding, transfer rate up to 170kbits is possible
 In phase 1, GPRS offers a point-to-point (PTP) packet transfer service
 One of the PTP version offer is PTP connection oriented Network service (PTP-CONS),
which includes the ability of GPRS to maintain a virtual circuit upon change of the cell
with in the GSM network.
 The other PTP version offered is PTP Connectionless Network service (PTP-CLNS) which
supports IP applications
 Multicasting called Point –to-multipoint (PTM) service is left for GPRS phase 2
 Users of GPRS can specify a QoS-profile. This determines the service precedence (high,
normal, low), reliability class and delay class of the transmission.

GPRS SERVICES

GPRS offers end-to-end packet-switched data transfer services which can be categorized into the
following two types:

(i) Point-to-Point (PTP) service

(ii) Point-to-Multipoint (PTM) service.

PTP (Point-To-Point) Services

Some of the GPRS services are not likely to be provided by network operators during early
deployment of GPRS due in part to the phased development of the standard. Market demand is
another factor affecting the decision of the operators regarding which services to offer first.
The PTP service is between two users and can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.

GPRS will support applications based on IP. Applications based on the Connection Oriented
Network Protocols are also defined to be supported. The X.25 protocol was initially mentioned but
has been dropped in recent standard developments. Table 1 illustrates the general description of
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 the PTP services and some possible applications.

PTM (Point-To-Multipoint) Services

The PTM is a data transfer service from one user to multiple users. Again, there are two types of
PTM services. One is multicast PTM where the data packets are broadcast in a certain area and the
other is group call PTM where the data packets are addressed to a group of users. The PTM services
provide the subscribers with the capability to send data to multiple destinations within one single
service request. Table 2 shows a general description of these services and some possible
applications. With the exception of PTM-M (Point-To-Multi-point Multicast) services, groups must
be defined and members are required to join an ongoing call to become participants.A PTM-G
(Point-to-Multipoint Group) call is usually restricted to members located within a specific
geographical area. An IP-M (IP-Multicast) call is on the other hand independent of the
geographical area of the participants and can be internal to the network or distributed across the
internet.

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GPRS ARCHITECTURE
GPRS architecture introduces two new network elements, called GPRS Support Node (GSN)and
the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) . A GSN is essentially a router. All GSNs are integrated
into a standard GSM architecture. The GGSN is the interworking unit between the GPRS network
and the external packet data network (PDN). The GGSN contains routing information for GPRS
users, performs address connection and tunnells data to a user through encapsulation. In Fig. 2.10,
the GGSN is connected to an external network and it transfers packets to the SGSN through an IP-
based GPRS backbone network.

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 Figure 2.2.1 GPRS Architecture Reference Model

As shown in Fig. SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) helps support MS. The SGSN is connected
to BSC through frame relay and it is at the same hierarchy level as the MSC. The GPRS Register
(GR) is a part of HLR which stores all the relevant GPRS data. In a part of HLR which stores all
the relevant data of GPRS in a mobile IP network, GGSN and SGSNs can be compared with home
agent and foreign agent respectively. The data packets are transmitted tothe BSS and finally to
the MS through the GGSN and SGSN. The MSC as we have already discussed is responsible for
data transport in the traditional circuit-switched GSM.

 GPRS network elements

Two new network element which are called GSN (GPRS Support Nodes): GGSN
and SGSN
 GGSN (Gateway GSN)
o Interworking unit between GPRS and PDN (Packet Data Network)
o PDN contains routing information for GPRS users and performs
address conversion

 SGSN (Serving GSN)

o Supports the MS via the Gb interface(location, billing, security)
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 o Request user addresses from GPRS register (GR) keeps track of
individual MSs location and it is responsible for collecting billing
information.

 GR (GPRS Register)

 stores all GPRS relevant data and user addresses

All GSN are integrated into standard GSM architecture. Packet data is transmitted from PDN, via
GGSN and SGSN directly to the BSS and finally to MS. Before sending data over GPRS network,
An MS must attach a Temporary Logical link Identity (TLLI) and a Ciphering key sequence
Number (CKSN) for data encryption. Besides attachment and detachment Mobility management
also comprises functions for authentication, location management etc. For each MS, a GPRS
context is set up and stored in the MS and in the corresponding SGSN.This context comprises the
status of MS (ready, idle, standby) In idle mode an MS is not reachable and all contexts are deleted.
In standby only movement across routing areas is updated to SGSN but not changes of the cell. In
ready state every movement of MS is indicated to the SGSN.

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)

 UTRA (was: UMTS, now: Universal Terrestrial Radio Access)
 Enhancements of GSM
 EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution): uses enhanced modulation (
8 PSK) and GSM up to 384 kbit/s
 CAMEL (Customized Application for Mobile Enhanced Logic)
 VHE (virtual Home Environment)
 Fits into GMM (Global Multimedia Mobility) initiative from ETSI
 Requirements
 min. 144 kbit/s rural (goal: 384 kbit/s)
 min. 384 kbit/s suburban (goal: 512 kbit/s)
 up to 2 Mbit/s urban
• UTRA-FDD:
(FDD - Frequency Division Duplex)

 Uplink 1920-1980 MHz

 Downlink 2110-2170 MHz
 Duplex spacing 190 MHz

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  12 channels, each 5 MHz
• UTRA-TDD:
(TDD - Time Division Duplex)

 1900-1920 MHz,
 2010-2025 MHz;
 5 MHz channels

UMTS Network Architecture

The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:

User Equipment (UE):

The User Equipment (UE) is the name by which a cell phone is referred to. The new name was
chosen because of the considerably greater functionality that the UE incorporates compared to a
cell phone. It can be thought of as both a mobile phone used for talking and a data terminal attached
to a computer with no voice capability. The UTRAN is connected to UE via the radio interface Uu
and via Iu interface the UTRAN communicates with Core Network (CN)

Figure 2.3.1 UMTS Network Architecture

UTRAN (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network):

 Cell level mobility

 Radio Network Subsystem (RNS)
 Function of this system include ciphering, deciphering, hand over
control, Radio resource management etc.

 Encapsulation of all radio specific tasks

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Core Network:

The core network is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem (NSS).

 Inter system handover

 Contains the function for inter-system handover, gateways to other networks etc

 Location management if there is no dedicated connection between UE and UTRAN

 UMTS further subdivides the above architecture into Domains

UMTS DOMAINS AND INTERFACES

 User Equipment Domain

 Assigned to a single user in order to access UMTS services
 Infrastructure Domain
 Shared among all users
 Offers UMTS services to all accepted users
 Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM)
 Functions for encryption and authentication of users
 Located on a SIM inserted into a mobile device
 Mobile Equipment Domain
 Functions for radio transmission
 User interface for establishing/maintaining end-to-end connections
 Access Network Domain
 Access network dependent functions
 Contains Radio Access Networks(RAN) and Core network Domain

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 Core Network Domain
 Access network independent functions
 This domain separated into three domains with specific tasks: Service Network
domain and Home network domain
 Serving Network Domain
 Network currently responsible for communication
 Home Network Domain
 Location and access network independent functions

UMTS HANDOVER
 Handover or handoff is as important for UMTS as any other form of cellular
telecommunicationssystem.
 As with any other cellular telecommunications system it is essential that UMTS handover
is performed seamlessly so that the user is not aware of anychange.
 Any failures within the UMTS handover procedure will lead to dropped calls which will in
turn result in user dissatisfaction and ultimately it may lead to users changingnetworks.

Handovers are an important part of every cellular communication system. They

are used for providing mobility in cellular architectures.

Types of Handover
There are four basic types of handover:

(1) Softerhandover: Intra-node B,Intra-RNC

Not a full form of UMTS handover, but the UE communicates with more than one sector
managed by the same Node B.

(2) Soft handover : Inter-node B,Intra-RNC

This form of handover is a more gradual and the UE communicates simultaneously with more
than one Node B or base station during the handover process.
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 3. Hardhandover: (i) Inter-RNC, Intra-MSC &(ii)Inter-MSC

This form of handover is essentially the same as that used for 2G networks where one link is
broken and anotherestablished.

4. Inter-Systemhandover: (UMTS -GSM)

This form of handover occurs when mobiles have to change between Radio Access Technologies
(i.e. between 3G and2G).

Limitations of GPS:
1. Issues Concerning Accuracy
A notable disadvantage of GPS is accuracy. Although several satellites are orbiting the Earth to ensure precision through
full global coverage, interferences can cause significant problems. Note that the ionosphere and the troposphere can slow
down the rate of signal propagation. Weather conditions and electromagnetic interference can also affect data transmission.

Certain geological features can also obstruct the communication between GPS satellites and receivers or enabled devices.
Cities with high-rise buildings or confined locations such as mountains, caves, and forests can hamper communication
because signals do not pierce through solid objects. Obstructions can lead to misleading coordinates or geolocation
information.

2. Dependent on Battery Life

A device equipped with GPS capabilities consumes battery power. The specific GPS chips are power hungry. For example,
in smartphones, the rate of battery level depletion can accelerate when its global positioning system feature is running on
the background or when using geolocation-dependent applications.

It is also worth mentioning that a key limitation of GPS is that once battery power runs out, an enabled device is virtually
useless. These devices are only as useful as their battery capacities. Such is the reason why these devices need to come with
power management features and better battery capacities.

3. GPS and Concerns About Privacy

GPS-enabled tracking devices can be used for stalking purposes. For example, a device placed unknowingly in the car of an
individual could communicate with another complementary device, thus allowing a user to track the location of the unaware
individual anonymously. The method can be used for criminal purposes. Note that these devices are readily available in the
market.

When used alongside Internet applications, such as mobile apps or social media, GPS can effectively track and record the
location of a user, thus allowing companies to exploit geolocation data and information for commercial purposes such as
geo-targeted advertising.

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 GEO:
The Strategic Position of GEO Satellites

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites occupy a unique and strategic position in space, precisely 35,786
kilometers (about 22,236 miles) above the Earth’s equator. This vantage point allows these satellites to
remain in a fixed position relative to the Earth’s surface, thanks to their orbital period matching the Earth’s
rotation rate. This synchronization ensures that each satellite can consistently monitor and communicate
with the same geographic area, 24/7.

Advantages of GEO Satellites

Persistent Coverage: The most significant advantage of GEO satellites is their ability to provide persistent,
uninterrupted coverage over a specific area. This makes them invaluable for critical applications that require
stable, continuous connectivity, such as broadcasting live television signals, facilitating long-distance
telecommunication links, and supporting weather forecasting models.

Wide Area Coverage: A single GEO satellite can cover approximately one-third of the Earth’s surface,
allowing for extensive coverage with fewer satellites. This wide area of coverage is particularly beneficial
for creating efficient, large-scale communication networks and broadcasting services that can reach a vast
audience across entire continents.

High Capacity and Reliability: GEO satellites are equipped with powerful transponders capable of
handling high bandwidths, making them ideal for supporting the backbone of international
telecommunications, including voice, data, and video transmissions. Their stationary nature reduces the risk
of signal loss or interruption, providing a reliable platform for critical communication infrastructure.

Applications of GEO Satellites

Telecommunications: GEO satellites form the backbone of the global telecommunications network, enabling
international phone calls, satellite television, and transoceanic communication links.

Broadcasting: They are pivotal in direct-to-home (DTH) satellite television and radio broadcasting,
allowing for the transmission of high-quality content directly to consumers’ receivers.

Weather Monitoring and Environmental Observation: GEO satellites carry sophisticated instruments for
monitoring weather patterns, climate change, and natural disasters in real-time, providing vital data for
forecasting and emergency response.
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Defense and Security: They also play a crucial role in national defense and security, supporting military
communications and surveillance over strategic areas.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Understanding MEO Dynamics

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites operate within an altitude range of 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers (about
1,200 to 22,236 miles) above the Earth. This orbit allows satellites to offer a blend of coverage, capacity,
and performance characteristics that sit between the close-proximity, rapid orbit of LEO satellites and the
far-reaching, stationary position of GEO satellites. The MEO’s unique position enables it to serve a wide
array of applications, particularly in navigation and communication.

The Distinctive Benefits of MEO Satellites

Optimal Balance: MEO satellites provide an optimal balance between the extensive coverage area of GEO
and the lower latency of LEO satellites. This makes them particularly suitable for applications requiring
both relatively low latency and broad geographic coverage.

Enhanced Navigation and Timing Services: The most prominent use of MEO satellites is in global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS), such as GPS (United States), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (European
Union), and BeiDou (China). These systems rely on constellations of MEO satellites to deliver precise
positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services across the globe.

Efficient Communication Networks: MEO orbits are also increasingly utilized for mobile and broadband
communications, offering a compromise between the high-capacity, fixed-point coverage of GEO satellites
and the low-latency, high-throughput capabilities of LEO systems. This makes them particularly attractive
for delivering internet and telecommunication services to remote and rural areas where terrestrial
infrastructure is limited or non-existent.

Challenges in Harnessing MEO

Orbital Deployment and Management: Deploying and managing a constellation of MEO satellites requires careful
planning to ensure continuous coverage and high-quality service. The satellites must be precisely positioned to
maintain optimal spacing and coverage, necessitating sophisticated control systems and coordination.

Signal Propagation Delay: While MEO satellites offer lower latency compared to GEO, there is still a noticeable
delay due to the greater distance from the Earth’s surface compared to LEO satellites. This can impact certain real-
time applications, though it is significantly less than the latency encountered with GEO satellites.

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Atmospheric Drag and Orbital Decay: Although less affected than LEO satellites, MEO satellites are still subject to
atmospheric drag and potential orbital decay. This necessitates the use of onboard propulsion systems to make
occasional adjustments to their orbits, ensuring they remain in the correct positions over their operational lifetimes.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO):

The Dynamics of LEO

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) encompasses satellites that orbit the Earth at altitudes ranging from approximately 160 to
2,000 kilometers (about 100 to 1,200 miles). The proximity of LEO satellites to the Earth’s surface allows for rapid
orbit times—often completing a full orbit in about 90 to 120 minutes. This unique characteristic enables LEO
satellites to offer high-resolution imagery, low-latency communications, and a host of other benefits critical to modern
technology and research.

Key Advantages of LEO Satellites

Reduced Latency: The standout advantage of LEO satellites is their ability to provide services with significantly
lower latency compared to GEO and MEO satellites. This is particularly important for applications requiring real-time
communication, such as voice and video conferencing, online gaming, and certain financial transactions.

High-Resolution Earth Observation: Given their close proximity to the Earth, LEO satellites are ideally suited for
detailed Earth observation and remote sensing tasks. They are capable of capturing high-resolution images and data,
which are invaluable for environmental monitoring, disaster response, urban planning, and security applications.

Cost-Effective Deployment: Launching satellites into LEO is generally less expensive than reaching higher orbits,
partly due to the lower velocity required to achieve orbit and the increasing availability of launch options. This cost-
effectiveness facilitates the deployment of large constellations, offering global coverage and redundancy.

Challenges and Future Directions

Space Debris and Traffic Management: With the increasing number of satellites in LEO, space debris and the
potential for collisions pose significant challenges. Effective traffic management and debris mitigation strategies are
essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of LEO operations.

Spectrum and Signal Interference: As the LEO environment becomes more crowded, managing spectrum allocation
and minimizing signal interference among satellite constellations become increasingly important. Advanced
communication technologies and regulatory coordination are key to addressing these issues.

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Innovative Technologies and Materials: The development of new materials and technologies, including more
efficient propulsion systems, lighter and more durable satellite components, and advanced communication payloads,
is critical for enhancing the capabilities and lifespan of LEO satellites.

WIMAX:

WiMAX and LTE are both wireless network technologies suitable for data connections to mobile (and sometimes
stationary) devices.

WiMAX is an IEEE standard, 802.16; its original name is WirelessMAN (for Metropolitan Area Network), and this
name appears intermittently in the IEEE standards. In its earlier versions it was intended for stationary subscribers
(802.16d), but was later expanded to support mobile subscribers (802.16e). The stationary-subscriber version is often
used to provide residential Internet connectivity, in both urban and rural areas.

LTE (the acronym itself stands for Long Term Evolution) is a product of the mobile telecom world; it was designed
for mobile subscribers from the beginning. Its official name – at least for its radio protocols – is Evolved UTRA, or
E-UTRA, where UTRA in turn stands for UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access. UMTS stands for Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System, a core mobile-device data-network mechanism with standards dating from the year
2000.

4G Capacity

A medium-level wireless data plan often comes with a 5 GB monthly cap. At the 100 Mbps 4G data rate, that
allotment can be downloaded in under six minutes. Data rate isn’t everything.

Both LTE and the mobile version of WiMAX are often marketed as fourth generation (or 4G) networking
technology. The ITU has a specific definition for 4G developed in 2008, officially named IMT-Advanced and
including a 100 Mbps download rate to moving devices and a 1 Gbps download rate to more-or-less-stationary
devices. Neither WiMAX nor LTE quite qualified technically, but to marketers that was no impediment. In any event,
in December 2010 the ITU issued a statement in which it “recognized that [the term 4G], while undefined, may also
be applied to the forerunners of these technologies, LTE and WiMax”. So-called Advanced LTE and WiMAX2 are
true IMT-Advanced protocols.

WiMAX can use unlicensed frequencies, like Wi-Fi, but its primary use is over licensed radio spectrum; LTE is used
almost exclusively over licensed spectrum.

WiMAX and LTE both support a number of options for the width of the frequency band; the wider the band, the
higher the data rate. Downlink (base station to subscriber) data rates can be well over 100 Mbps (uplink rates are
usually smaller). Most LTE bands are either in the range 700-900 MHz or are above 1700 MHz; the lower frequencies
tend to be better at penetrating trees and walls.

Like Wi-Fi, WiMAX and LTE subscriber stations connect to a central access point. The WiMAX standard prefers
the term base station which we will use henceforth for both protocols; LTE officially prefers the term “evolved
NodeB” or eNB.
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The coverage radius for LTE and mobile-subscriber WiMAX might be one to ten kilometers, versus less (sometimes
much less) than 100 meters for Wi-Fi. Stationary-subscriber WiMAX can operate on a larger scale; the coverage
radius can be several tens of kilometers. As distances increase, the data rate is reduced.

Large-radius base stations are typically mounted in towers; smaller-radius base-stations, generally used only in areas
densely populated with subscribers, may use lower antennas integrated discretely into the local architecture.
Subscriber stations are not expected to be able to hear other stations; they interact only with the base station.

Uplink Scheduling

As distances increase, the subscriber-to-base RTT becomes non-negligible. At 10 kilometers, this RTT is 66 µsec,
based on the speed of light of about 300 m/µsec. At 100 Mbps this is enough time to send 800 bytes, making it a
priority to reduce the number of RTTs. To this end, it is no longer practical to use Wi-Fi-style collisions to resolve
access contention; it is not even practical to use the Wi-Fi PCF mode of Wi-Fi Polling Mode because polling
requires additional RTTs. Instead, WiMAX and LTE rely on base-station-regulated scheduling of transmissions.

The base station has no difficulty scheduling downlink transmissions, from base to subscriber: the base station simply
sends the packets sequentially (or in parallel on different sets of subcarriers if OFDM is used). If beamforming MISO
antennas are used, or multiple physically directional antennas, the base station will take this into account.

It is the uplink transmissions – from subscriber to base – that are more complicated to coordinate. Once a subscriber
station completes the network entry process to connect to a base station, it is assigned regular transmission slots,
including times and frequencies. These transmission slots may vary in size over time; the base station may regularly
issue new transmission schedules. Each subscriber station is told in effect that it may transmit on its assigned
frequencies starting at an assigned time and for an assigned length; LTE lengths start at 1 ms and WiMAX lengths at
2 ms. The station synchronizes its clock with that of the base station as part of the network entry process.

Each subscriber station is scheduled to transmit so that one transmission finishes arriving at the base station just
before the next station’s same-frequency transmission begins arriving. Only minimal “guard intervals” need be
included between consecutive transmissions. Two (or more) consecutive uplink transmissions may in fact be “in the
air” simultaneously, as far-away stations need to begin transmitting early so their signals will arrive at the base station
at the expected time.

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Scheduled timeslots may be periodic (as is would be appropriate for voice) or may occur at varying
intervals. Quality-of-Service requests may also enter into the schedule; LTE focuses on end-to-end QoS
while WiMAX focuses on subscriber-to-base QoS.

When a station has data to send, it may include in its next scheduled transmission a request for a longer
transmission interval; if the request is granted, the station may send its data (or at least some of its data) in
its next scheduled transmission slot. When a station is done transmitting, its timeslot may shrink back to the
minimum, and may be scheduled less frequently as well, but it does not disappear. Stations without data to
send remain connected to the base station by sending “empty” messages during these slots.

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