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 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
HISTORY
• In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine.
• In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype
internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. The same year,
the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by an electric spark.
• In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially.
• In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine.
• In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine.
• In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid fueled internal combustion engine
• In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge,
four-cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gasoline engine
• In 1886, Karl Benz began the first commercial production of motor vehicles with the internal combustion engine.
• In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
• The internal-combustion engine is a prime mover, and it emerged in the 19th century as a result both of
greater scientific understanding of the principles of thermodynamics and of a search by engineers for a
substitute for steam power in certain circumstances.
• In an internal-combustion engine the fuel is burned in the engine: the cannon provided an early model of a
single-stroke engine; and several persons had experimented with gunpowder as a means of driving a piston
in a cylinder.
• The major problem was that of finding a suitable fuel, and the secondary problem was that of igniting the
fuel in an enclosed space to produce an action that could be easily and quickly repeated.
• The first problem was solved in the mid-19th century by the introduction of town gas supplies, but the
second problem proved more intractable as it was difficult to maintain ignition evenly.
• The first successful gas engine was made by Étienne Lenoir in Paris in 1859. It was modeled closely on a
horizontal steam engine, with an explosive mixture of gas and air ignited by an electric spark on alternate
sides of the piston when it was in mid-stroke position.
• Although technically satisfactory, the engine was expensive to operate, and it was not until the refinement
introduced by the German inventor Nikolaus Otto in 1878 that the gas engine became a commercial
success. Otto adopted the four-stroke cycle of induction-compression-firing-exhaust that has been known
by his name ever since.
• Gas engines became extensively used for small industrial establishments, which could thus dispense with
the upkeep of a boiler necessary in any steam plant, however small.
Internal-combustion engine, any of a group of devices in which the reactants of combustion (oxidizer and fuel) and
the products of combustion serve as the working fluids of the engine.
Such an engine gains its energy from heat released during the combustion of the nonreacted working fluids, the
oxidizer-fuel mixture.
This process occurs within the engine and is part of the thermodynamic cycle of the device. Useful work
generated by an internal-combustion (IC) engine results from the hot gaseous products of combustion acting on
moving surfaces of the engine, such as the face of a piston, a turbine blade, or a nozzle.
Internal-combustion engines are the most broadly applied and widely used power-generating devices currently in
existence. Examples include gasoline engines, diesel engines, gas-turbine engines, and rocket-propulsion systems.
Internal-combustion engines are divided into two groups: continuous-combustion engines and intermittent-
combustion engines. The continuous-combustion engine is characterized by a steady flow of fuel and oxidizer into
the engine. A stable flame is maintained within the engine (e.g., jet engine).
The intermittent-combustion engine is characterized by periodic ignition of air and fuel and is commonly referred
to as a reciprocating engine. Discrete volumes of air and fuel are processed in a cyclic manner. Gasoline piston
engines and diesel engines are examples of this second group.
Internal-combustion engines can be delineated in terms of a series of thermodynamic events. In the continuous-
combustion engine, the thermodynamic events occur simultaneously as the oxidizer and fuel and the products of
combustion flow steadily through the engine.
In the intermittent-combustion engine, by contrast, the events occur in succession and are repeated for each full
cycle.
The most common internal-combustion engine is the four-stroke, gasoline-powered, homogeneous-charge, spark-
ignition engine. This is because of its outstanding performance as a prime mover in the ground transportation
industry.
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the
more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine
and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas
turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same
principle as previously described. Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.

Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines :

C – crankshaft.
E – exhaust camshaft.
I – inlet camshaft.
P – piston.
R – connecting rod.
S – spark plug.
V – valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake.
W – cooling water jacket.
Gray Structure – engine block.
Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles,
including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use
Diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles.
Where high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of combustion
turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes
can instead use jet engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines. In
addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary power unit. Wankel engines are
fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles.

Reciprocating engine as found inside a car

ICEs drive some of the large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form
of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with a typical electrical output in the range of 100 MW to
1 GW. The high temperature exhaust is used to boil and superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, the
efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the
combustion turbine alone. In combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60% are typical. In a
smaller scale Diesel generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical power to areas not
connected to an electric grid.

Small engines (usually 2‐stroke gasoline engines) are a common power source for lawnmowers, string
trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds,
and motorcycles.

Big Diesel generator used for backup power

There are several possible ways to classify Internal Combustion Engines:
Reciprocating by number of strokes:
 Two-stroke engine
 Clerk cycle
 Day cycle
 Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)
 Six-stroke engine

By type of ignition:
 Compression-ignition engine
 Spark-ignition engine (commonly found as gasoline engines)

By mechanical/thermo-dynamical cycle (these 2 cycles do not encompass all

reciprocating engines, and are infrequently used):
 Atkinson cycle
 Miller cycle
 Rotary (For rotating-crankcase radial-cylindered engines, see Rotary engine):
 Wankel engine

Continuous Combustion:
• Gas turbine
• Turbojet, through a propelling nozzle
• Turbofan, through a ducted fan
• Turboprop, through an inducted propeller, usually with variable pitch
• Ramjet
• Rocket engine

4 – STROKE ENGINE
The top dead center (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; bottom dead
center (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A stroke is the movement of a piston from
TDC to BDC or vice versa, together with the associated process. While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft
rotates continuously at a nearly constant speed. In a 4-stroke ICE, each piston experiences 2 strokes per
crankshaft revolution in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are:
1. Intake, induction or suction:
The intake valves are open as a result of the cam lobe pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves downward
increasing the volume of the combustion chamber and allowing air to enter in the case of a CI engine or an air fuel mix
in the case of SI engines that do not use direct injection. The air or air-fuel mixture is called the charge in any case.
2. Compression:
In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves upward reducing the combustion chamber volume which
reaches its minimum when the piston is at TDC. The piston performs work on the charge as it is being compressed; as
a result its pressure, temperature and density increase; an approximation to this behavior is provided by the ideal gas
law. Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition begins. In the case of a SI engine, the spark plug receives a high
voltage pulse that generates the spark which gives it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CI engine the fuel
injector quickly injects fuel into the combustion chamber as a spray; the fuel ignites due to the high temperature.
3. Power or working stroke:
The pressure of the combustion gases pushes the piston downward, generating more work than it required to compress
the charge. Complementary to the compression stroke, the combustion gases expand and as a result their temperature,
pressure and density decreases. When the piston is near to BDC the exhaust valve opens. The combustion gases
expand irreversibly due to the leftover pressure—in excess of back pressure, the gauge pressure on the exhaust port—;
this is called the blowdown.
4. Exhaust:
The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves upward expelling the combustion gases. For naturally
aspirated engines a small part of the combustion gases may remain in the cylinder during normal operation because the
piston does not close the combustion chamber completely; these gases dissolve in the next charge. At the end of this
stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. The intake valve
may open before the exhaust valve closes to allow better scavenging.
Diagram showing the operation
of a 4-stroke SI engine. Labels:

1 ‐ Induction
2 ‐ Compression
3 ‐ Power
4 ‐ Exhaust
2 – STROKE ENGINE
The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a cycle every crankshaft
revolution. The 4 processes of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is
not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC the cycle consist of:

1. Power: While the piston is descending the combustion gases perform work on it, as in a 4-stroke engine. The
same thermodynamic considerations about the expansion apply.
2. Scavenging: Around 75° of crankshaft rotation before BDC the exhaust valve or port opens, and blowdown occurs.
Shortly thereafter the intake valve or transfer port opens. The incoming charge displaces the remaining combustion
gases to the exhaust system and a part of the charge may enter the exhaust system as well. The piston reaches BDC
and reverses direction. After the piston has traveled a short distance upwards into the cylinder the exhaust valve or port
closes; shortly the intake valve or transfer port closes as well.
3. Compression: With both intake and exhaust closed the piston continues moving upwards compressing the charge and
performing a work on it. As in the case of a 4-stroke engine, ignition starts just before the piston reaches TDC and the
same consideration on the thermodynamics of the compression on the charge.
While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the
4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for
combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes from either the
crankcase or a separate blower. For scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main
approaches are described: Loop scavenging, and Uniflow scavenging, SAE news published in the 2010s that 'Loop
Scavenging' is better under any circumstance than Uniflow Scavenging.
CRANKCASE SCAVENGE

Diagram of a crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engine in operation

Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead the crankcase and the part of
the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump. The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a reed
valve or a rotary disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder a transfer port connects in one end to the
crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall.
The transfer and exhaust port are opened and closed by the piston. The reed valve opens when the crankcase
pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge; this happens when the piston is
moving upwards. When the piston is moving downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed
valve closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is moving upwards, it
uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it
enter the cylinder through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is accomplished by adding
2-stroke oil to the fuel in small ratios. Petroil refers to the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of
2-stroke engines has a lower efficiency than comparable 4-strokes engines and release a more polluting exhaust
gases for the following conditions:
 They use a total-loss lubrication system: all the lubricating oil is eventually burned along with the fuel.
 There are conflicting requirements for scavenging: On one side, enough fresh charge needs to be introduced
in each cycle to displace almost all the combustion gases but introducing too much of it means that a part of
it gets in the exhaust.
 They must use the transfer port(s) as a carefully designed and placed nozzle so that a gas current is created
in a way that it sweeps the whole cylinder before reaching the exhaust port so as to expel the combustion
gases, but minimize the amount of charge exhausted. 4-stroke engines have the benefit of forcibly expelling
almost all of the combustion gases because during exhaust the combustion chamber is reduced to its
minimum volume. In crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engines, exhaust and intake are performed mostly
simultaneously and with the combustion chamber at its maximum volume.
The main advantage of 2-stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher power-to-weight
ratio than their 4-stroke counterparts. Despite having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the
power of a comparable 4-stroke engine is attainable in practice.

In the US, 2-stroke engines were banned for road vehicles due to the pollution. Off-road only motorcycles are still
often 2-stroke but are rarely road legal. However, many thousands of 2-stroke lawn maintenance engines are in
use.

Diagram of a crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engine in operation

BLOWER SCAVENGED

Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase scavenging, at the expense of increased
complexity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses
ports or valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except opposed piston engines, which may also use ports for
exhaust. The blower is usually of the Roots-type but other types have been used too. This design is
commonplace in CI engines, and has been occasionally used in SI engines.

CI engines that use a blower typically use uniflow scavenging. In this design the cylinder wall contains several
intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the circumference just above the position that the piston crown
reaches when at BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4-stroke engines is used. The final part of the
intake manifold is an air sleeve which feeds the intake ports. The intake ports are placed at an horizontal angle
to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve
combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type; they are used for marine
propulsion (see marine diesel engine) or electric power generation and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies
among internal combustion engines of any kind. Some Diesel-electric locomotive engines operate on the 2-
stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake power of around 4.5 MW or 6,000 HP. The EMD
SD90MAC class of locomotives use a 2-stroke engine. The comparable class GE AC6000CW whose prime mover
has almost the same brake power uses a 4-stroke engine.

An example of this type of engine is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged 2-stroke Diesel, used in large
container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful reciprocating internal combustion engine in the world with
a thermal efficiency over 50%. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke engines are around 43%
thermally-efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to
surface area.
Diagram of uniflow scavenging
IGNITION
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the
invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with laser ignition have been
built.

Spark Ignition Process:

The spark ignition engine was a refinement of the early engines which used Hot Tube ignition. When Bosch developed the magneto it
became the primary system for producing electricity to energize a spark plug. [16] Many small engines still use magneto ignition.
Small engines are started by hand cranking using a recoil starter or hand crank. Prior to Charles F. Kettering of Delco's development
of the automotive starter all gasoline engined automobiles used a hand crank.

Larger engines typically power their starting motors and ignition systems using the electrical energy stored in a lead–acid battery.
The battery's charged state is maintained by an automotive alternator or (previously) a generator which uses engine power to create
electrical energy storage.

The battery supplies electrical power for starting when the engine has a starting motor system, and supplies electrical power when
the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more
than 13.8 volts (for a common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the lead-acid storage
battery increasingly picks up electrical load. During virtually all running conditions, including normal idle conditions, the alternator
supplies primary electrical power.

Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide open throttle conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator
pulley mechanical loading to nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case, the battery supplies all primary electrical
power.

Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it by the movement of the piston from bottom dead center to
top dead center when the fuel is at maximum compression. The reduction in the size of the swept area of the cylinder and taking
into account the volume of the combustion chamber is described by a ratio. Early engines had compression ratios of 6 to 1. As
compression ratios were increased, the efficiency of the engine increased as well.
With early induction and ignition systems the compression ratios had to be kept low. With advances in fuel technology
and combustion management, high performance engines can run reliably at 12:1 ratio. With low octane fuel, a problem
would occur as the compression ratio increased as the fuel was igniting due to the rise in temperature that
resulted. Charles Kettering developed a lead additive which allowed higher compression ratios, which was
progressively abandoned for automotive use from the 1970s onward, partly due to lead poisoning concerns.

The fuel mixture is ignited at difference progressions of the piston in the cylinder. At low rpm, the spark is timed to
occur close to the piston achieving top dead center. In order to produce more power, as rpm rises the spark is advanced
sooner during piston movement. The spark occurs while the fuel is still being compressed progressively more as rpm
rises

The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts, is supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is
a fly-back system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some type of synchronized
interrupter. The interrupter can be either contact points or a power transistor. The problem with this type of ignition is
that as RPM increases the availability of electrical energy decreases. This is especially a problem, since the amount of
energy needed to ignite a more dense fuel mixture is higher. The result was often a high RPM misfire.

Capacitor discharge ignition was developed. It produces a rising voltage that is sent to the spark plug. CD system
voltages can reach 60,000 volts. CD ignitions use step-up transformers. The step-up transformer uses energy stored in a
capacitance to generate electric spark. With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system provides a
carefully timed high-voltage to the proper cylinder. This spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
engine's cylinders.

While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather than diesel engines, they can still
have cold weather starting problems under extreme conditions. For years, the solution was to park the car in heated
areas. In some parts of the world, the oil was actually drained and heated over night and returned to the engine for cold
starts. In the early 1950s, the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather starts, raw gasoline was
diverted to the unit where part of the fuel was burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the
intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular until electric engine block heaters became standard on gasoline
engines sold in cold climates.
 Points and Coil Ignition

Compression Ignition Process

Diesel, PPC and HCCI engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process
for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines
take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a
fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to
rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI
engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started.
Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glow plugs (or other pre-
heating: see Cummins ISB#6BT) that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no-start
conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is
secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can
also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and
accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the
combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
 Parts and Function of a Internal Combustion Engine

1. Cylinder block
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of
fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of
cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in direct contact with the products of
combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder a water jacket (for
liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder
head and at the bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is
consists a combustion chamber where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure
and temperature generated by combustion of fuel, cylinder material should have
high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It is made by
casting and usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder
head. There are two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel
and other for exhaust. Both the intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two
valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark
plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function of cylinder
head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of gases on
cover head valve engine. Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or
aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and usually in one piece.
3. Piston
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and
transmit the thrust to the connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine.
The main function of piston is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore
and slide freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient
strong to handle gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston
is made by aluminum alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because
light alloy piston expands more than cast iron so they need more clearances
to the bore.

4. Piston rings
A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside
the cylinder. If the piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and
might stick tight in the cylinder and if it is too loose it would leaks the vapor
pressure. To provide a good sealing fit and less friction resistance between
the piston and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings
are fitted in grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one
end so they can expand or slipped over the end of piston. A small two
stroke engine has two piston rings to provide good sealing but a four stroke
engine has an extra ring which is known as oil ring. Piston rings are made of
cast iron of fine grain and high elastic material which is not affected by the
working heat. Sometimes it is made by alloy spring steel.

5. Connecting rod
Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion
and thrust of piston to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of
the piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. There are two end of connecting
rod; one is known as big end and other as small end. Big end is connected to
the crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston
pin. The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium
steels. For small engines the material may be aluminum.
6. Crankshaft
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or
thrust supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the
reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. The
crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of
crankshaft depends on the number and arrangement of cylinders. It is
usually made by steel forging, but some makers use special types of cast-
iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel alloy castings which are cheaper
to produce and have good service life.

7. Engine bearing
Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed.
Bearings are used to support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported
by bearing. The connecting rod big end is attached to the crank pin on the
crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small end is used to
attach the rod to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of
bearings is to reduce friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine
sliding and rolling types of bearing used. The sliding type bearing which are
sometime called bush is use to attach the connecting rod to the piston and
crankshaft. They are split in order to permit their assembly into the engine.
The rolling and ball bearing is
used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The typical bearing half is
made of steel or bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing
material is applied.

8. Crankcase
The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which
contains the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It
serves as the lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump. All
the oil for lubrication is placed in it.
9. Valves
To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are
used. The number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders.
Two valves are used for each cylinder one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside
the cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases. The valves are fitted
in the port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep
them closed. Both valves usually open inwards.

10. Spark plug

It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to
conduct a high potential from the ignition system into the combustion
chamber to ignite the compressed air fuel mixture. It is fitted on cylinder
head. The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two electrodes which
are insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current
supply to spark plug it jumping from the supply electrode and produces the
necessary spark.

11. Injector
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into
combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on
cylinder head.
12. Manifold
The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects
the exhaust gases equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine
two manifold are used, one for intake and other for exhaust. They are usually
made by aluminum alloy.

13. Camshaft
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at
proper timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of
exhaust stroke and closed at the end of intake stroke. So to regulate its
timing, a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a pressure on the
valve to open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives
by crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.

14. Gudgeon pin or piston pin

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses
and the small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It
connects the piston to connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.
 15. Pushrod
Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder.
It carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the
cylinder head.

16. Flywheel
A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to
rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation
more uniform.

17. Starter systems

All internal combustion engines require some form of system to get them into
operation. Most piston engines use a starter motor powered by the same battery as
runs the rest of the electric systems. Large jet engines and gas turbines are started
with a compressed air motor that is geared to one of the engine's driveshafts.
Compressed air can be supplied from another engine, a unit on the ground or by the
aircraft's APU. Small internal combustion engines are often started by pull cords.
Motorcycles of all sizes were traditionally kick-started, though all but the smallest are
now electric-start. Large stationary and marine engines may be started by the timed
injection of compressed air into the cylinders — or occasionally with cartridges. Jump
starting refers to assistance from another battery (typically when the fitted battery is
discharged), while bump starting refers to an alternative method of starting by the
application of some external force, e.g. rolling down a hill. An automobile starter motor (larger
cylinder). The smaller object on top
is a starter solenoid which controls
power to the starter motor.
18. Heat shielding systems
These systems often work in combination with engine cooling and exhaust systems.
Heat shielding is necessary to prevent engine heat from damaging heat-sensitive
components. The majority of older cars use simple steel heat shielding to
reduce thermal radiation and convection. It is now most common for modern cars are
to use aluminum heat shielding which has a lower density, can be easily formed and
does not corrode in the same way as steel. Higher performance vehicles are
beginning to use ceramic heat shielding as this can withstand far higher
temperatures as well as further reductions in heat transfer.

19. Lubrication systems

Internal combustions engines require lubrication in operation that moving parts slide
smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication subjects the parts of the engine to
metal-to-metal contact, friction, heat build-up, rapid wear often culminating in parts
becoming friction welded together e.g. pistons in their cylinders. Big end
bearings seizing up will sometimes lead to a connecting rod breaking and poking out
through the crankcase.
Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines
are lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a
spray. Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity
from small chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the time — with an
engine tender refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and
aircraft use, the need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher
temperatures, and greater pressure on bearings which in turn required pressure-
lubrication for crank bearings and connecting-rod journals. This was provided either Lubrication of a ship's engine
by a direct lubrication from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup crankshaft. The two bottles of
cups on the connecting rod ends which had the advantage of providing higher lubricant are attached to the piston
pressures as the engine speed increased. and move while the engine is
operating.
20. Control systems
Most engines require one or more systems to start and shut down the engine
and to control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution,
combustion temperature, and efficiency and to stabilize the engine from modes
of operation that may induce self-damage such as pre-ignition. Such systems
may be referred to as engine control units.
Many control systems today are digital, and are frequently termed FADEC (Full
An Electronic Control Unit (ECU) is
Authority Digital Electronic Control) systems. any embedded system in automotive
electronics that controls one or more
of the electrical systems or
21. Diagnostic systems subsystems in a vehicle.

Engine On Board Diagnostics (also known as OBD) is a computerized system

that allows for electronic diagnosis of a vehicles' powerplant. The first
generation, known as OBD1, was introduced 10 years after the U.S.
Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 as a way to monitor a vehicles'
fuel injection system. OBD2, the second generation of computerized on-
board diagnostics, was codified and recommended by the California Air
Resource Board in 1994 and became mandatory equipment aboard all
vehicles sold in the United States as of 1996.Also done in all cars.

22. Cooling systems

Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the
walls of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to
reach too high a temperature; either the engine will physically fail, or any
lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer protect the engine.
The lubricants must be clean as dirty lubricants may lead to over formation of
sludge in the engines.
Cooling systems usually employ air (air-cooled) or liquid (usually water) cooling,
while some very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some rocket
engines). Some high-altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling, where the A cylinder from an air-cooled engine. Notice the rows of fins on
walls gradually erode in a controlled fashion. Rockets in particular can both the steel cylinder barrel and the aluminum cylinder head.
use regenerative cooling, which uses the fuel to cool the solid parts of the The fins provide additional surface area for air to pass over the
cylinder and absorb heat.
engine.
THE END NA GYUD NI!
KAMO NAPUD, GOD BLESS!