Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields

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 Magnetic Materials

Iron, Cobalt and Nickel and various other alloys and

compounds made using these three basic elements

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Electric Current and Magnetic Field

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 A Few Definitions Related to
Electromagnetic Field
 (Unit is Weber (Wb)) = Magnetic Flux Crossing a Surface of
Area ‘A’ in m2.
B (Unit is Tesla (T)) = Magnetic Flux Density = /A
B
H (Unit is Amp/m) = Magnetic Field Intensity =

 = permeability = o r

o = 4*10-7 H/m (H Henry) = Permeability of free space (air)

r = Relative Permeability
r >> 1 for Magnetic Material
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 Ampére’s Law
The line integral of the magnetic field intensity around a closed path is
equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the area enclosed by
the path.  

 H. dl   i
   
H . dl  H dl cos 

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 Example of Ampére’s Law
Find the magnetic field along a circular path around an infinitely long
Conductor carrying ‘I’ ampere of current.

B,H
900
r
dl

 
Since both dl and H are perpendicular to radius ‘r’ at any point ‘A’
on the circular path, the angle  is zero between them at all
points. Also since all the points on

the circular path are
equidistant from the current carrying
H conductor is constant at
 
all points on the  
circle   I
 H. dl  H  dl  H 2r  I or H  2r
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 Magnetic Circuits
•They are basically ferromagnetic structures(mostly Iron, Cobalt,
Nickel alloys and compounds) with coils wound around them

•Because of high permeability most of the magnetic flux is

confined
within the
 magnetic circuit 
H dl(  0)
•Thus is always aligned with

•Examples: Transformers,Actuators, Electromagnets, Electric

Machines

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 Magnetic Circuits (1)
w
I

d
= mean length

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 Magnetic Circuits (2)
F =NI= Magneto Motive Force or MMF = # of turns *
Current passing through it
F = NI = H(why!)
B 
or   NI or   NI
 A
NI
or  
 /(A)
NI
or  


 = Reluctance of magnetic path

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Analogy Between Magnetic and Electric
Circuits

F =MMF is analogous to Electromotive force (EMF) =E

 = Flux is analogous to I = Current

 = Reluctance is analogous to R = Resistance

1 1
P = Permeance  = Analogous to conductance G 
 R

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 Magnetization Curves
saturation
B knee
B

Linear

H H

Magnetization curve Magnetization curve

(linear) (Ideal) (non-linear) (Actual)
(see also Fig. 1.6 in the text)
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 Magnetization Curves(2)
•One can linearize magnetic circuits by including air-gaps

•However that would cause a large increase in ampere-turn

requirements.

Ex: Transformers don’t have air-gaps. They have very little

magnetizing current (5% of full load)

Induction motors have air-gaps. They have large magnetizing

current (30-50%)

Question: why induction motors have air –gap and

transformers don’t?
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Magnetization Circuits with Air-gap
c w
i

N
g

lc lg Ni d
c  g  
 c Ac  g Ag c   g
Ni  H clc  H g l g Ac  Ag  wd ( Neglecting fringing )

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 Fringing
c w
i

With large air-gaps, flux tends to leak outside the air –gap. This is
called fringing which increases the effective flux area. One way to
approximate this increase is:
wn  w  l g ; d n  d  l g ; Agn  wn d n
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Example of Magnetic Circuits On
Greenboard

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Magnetization Curves (for examples)

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 Inductance(L)

Definition: Flux Linkage() per unit of current(I) in a magnetic circuit


 N
L 
I I
 
NI


N2
L 


Thus inductance depends on the geometry of construction

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Example of Inductances On Greenboard

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How to find exact Inductances with
magnetic circuit with finite thickness (say
a torroid with finite thickness)

see problem 1.16

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 Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic
Induction
The EMF (Electromotive Force) induced in a magnetic circuit is
Equal to the rate of change of flux linked with the circuit

d d ( N ) d
e  N
dt dt dt

Li  N

dLi di
e  L
dt dt

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 Lenz’s Law
The polarity of the induced voltage is given by Lenz’s law

The polarity of the induced voltage will be such as to oppose the very
cause to which it is due
Thus sometimes we write

dLi di
e    L
dt dt

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 A precursor to Transformer
  =m Sin(t)
V = Vm Cos(t)

i
e 


Ideally
d
e  N   N m Cos(t )  E m Cos(t )  Vm Cos(t )
dt
N N mSin (t )
i   I mSin (t )
L L
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A Precursor to Transformer(2)
100

50

V
-50

-100
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

100

50

0
e

-50

-100
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016
60

40

20
phi,i

-20

-40

-60
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

time
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Example on excitation of magnetic
circuit with sinusoidal flux On
greenboard

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Example on excitation of magnetic
circuit with square flux on greenboard
(Important for Switched Mode Power
Supplies)

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 What will non-linearity in magnetic
circuit lead to?

•It would cause distortion in current waveforms since by Faraday’s

and Lenz’s law the induced voltage always has to balance out the
applied voltage that happens to be sinusoidal

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Sinusoidal voltage non-sinusoidal
current

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 Iron Losses in Magnetic Circuit

There are two types of iron losses

a) Hysteresis losses

b) Eddy Current Losses

Total iron loss is the sum of these two losses

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 1 Hysteresis losses
f
T i
f =frequency
of sine source
B
B-H or Hysteresis loop i
Br 3 saturation
knee point 4 5
0
0 2
1 2 1 3
t
Hc H
4 5

Br = Retentive flux density (due to property of retentivity)

Hc= Coercive field intensity (due to property of coercivity)
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 Hysteresis losses (2)
•The lagging phenomenon of B behind H is called hysteresis

• The tip of hysteresis loops can be joined to obtain the

magnetization characteristics

•In each of the current cycle the energy lost in the core is
proportional to the area of the B-H loop

•Energy lost/cycle = Vcore  HdB

• Ph = Hysteresis loss = f Vcore  HdB = kh B n
maxf

kh = Constant, n = 1.5-2.5, Bmax= Peak flux density

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 Eddy current loss
Laminations
flux flux
Current

Because of time variation of flux flowing through the magnetic

material as shown, current is induced in the magnetic material,
following Faraday’s law. This current is called eddy current.
The direction of the current is determined by Lenz’s law. This current
can be reduced by using laminated (thin sheet) iron structure, with
Insulation between the laminations.
• Pe = Eddy current loss = keB2maxf
ke = Constant , Bmax= Peak flux density
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 Permanent Magnets
• Alloys of Iron, Cobalt and Nickle

•Have large B-H loops, with large Br and –Hc

•Due to heat treatment becomes mechanically hard and are thus

called HARD IRON

•Field intensity is determined by the coercive field required to

demagnetize it

•Operating points defined by Bm,Hm in the second quadrant of

the B-H loop
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Using Permanent Magnets for providing
magnetic field
SOFT IRON

lm
PM lg

SOFT IRON

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 Designing Permanent Magnets
•The key issue here is to minimize the volume Vm of material
required for setting up a required Bg in a given air gap

•It can be shown that Vm =Bg2Vg/μoBmHm (see derivation in text)

where Vg= Aglg Volume of air-gap,lg = length of air-gap, Ag =area
of air-gap

•Thus by maximizing Bm, Hm product Vm can be minimized

•Once Bm, Hm at the maximum Bm, Hm product point are known,

lm =length of permanent magnet, Am =area of permanent magnet
can be found as

•lm=-lgHg/Hm (applying ampère’s law),

•Am=BgAg/Bm (same flux flows magckt
through PM as well as air-gap) 34
Finding the maximum product point
1.4

1.2

Demagnetization curve for

1
Neodymium-iron-boron magnet

0.8

B(Tesla)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0
H(kA/m)

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Finding the maximum product point (2)
B= mH+c, m and c are constants.

To find maximum BH product, we need to differentiate

BH=mH2+cH;
and set it equal to 0. Thus we get

Hm=-c/2m. and Bm =c/2

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Finding the maximum product point (3)

Answer:

Bm=0.64 T, Hm = -475 kA/m

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