A

FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
FARADAY’S LAW of ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Faraday’s Law states that:
1. If the flux linking a loop(or turn) varies as a
function of time, a voltage is induced between its
terminals.
2. The value of the induced voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of flux.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
RIGHT HAND RULE FOR CURRENT-CARRYING
CONDUCTOR

The direction of magnetic flux around a current-

carrying conductor may be determined using
Fleming’s RIGHT HAND RULE. (This is on the
assumption that conventional current flow is
used)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
The voltage induced is given by:

E = N ---------- ( is in Wb; t is in s)
t

Example 8:
A coil of 2000 turns surrounds a flux of 5 mWb
produced by a permanent magnet. The magnet is
suddenly withdrawn causing the flux inside the coil to
drop to 2 mWb in 1/10 of a second. What is the
average voltage induced?
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
N =2000

N S

1 = 5 m W b t = 1 /1 0 s
2 = 3 m W b

Solution:
 (5x10-3–2x10-3)
E = N ------ = (2000)
t 0.1 s

E = 60 V
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
VOLTAGE INDUCED in a CONDUCTOR
The value of the induced voltage is given by:
E=Blv
where

E = induced voltage [V]

B = flux density [T, Wb/m2]
l = active length of the conductor in the magnetic field
[m]
v = relative speed of the conductor [m/s]
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
DIRECTION OF GENERATED VOLTAGE
The polarity of the generated voltage is deter- mined by
the direction of the flux lines and the thrust. RIGHT
HAND RULE may be used to quickly determine the
generated voltage polarity.

FORCE

N CURRENT
S

FLUX
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
Example 9:
The stationary conductors of a large generator have a
length of 2 m and are cut by a field of 0.6 teslas,
moving at a speed of 100 m/s. Calculate the voltage
induced in each conductor.

Solution:

E = Blv
= 0.6 x 2 x 100
E = 120 V
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
LORENTZ FORCE on a CONDUCTOR
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it is subjected to a force which we call
electromagnetic force, or Lorentz force. The
maximum force acting on a straight conductor is
given by:

F=BIL
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
where
F = force acting on the conductor [N]
B = flux density of the field [T]
L = active length of the conductor [m]
I = current in the conductor [A]
L

B
N S

F
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
DIRECTION OF THE FORCE
The direction of the force is determined by the direction
of the flux lines and the current. LEFT HAND
RULE may be used to quickly determine the force
direction.

FLUX

N CURRENT
S

FORCE
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETISM
A
Example 10:
A conductor 3 m long is carrying a current of 200 A
is placed in a magnetic field whose density is 0.5 T.
Calculate the force on the conductor if it is
perpendicular to the lines of force.

Solution:
F =BlL
F = 0.5 T x 200 A x 3 m
F = 300 N
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
A basic AC generator
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
Position 1: Maximum Generated Voltage

Position 2: 45 rotation

A
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
Position 3: 90 rotation – zero generated voltage

B
A
Position 4: 135 rotation
B

A
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
Position 5: 180 rotation – max. negative

Position 6: 225 rotation

B
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
COMMUTATION PROCESS IN
DC GENERATORS
• Position 1
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
• Position 2

• Position 3
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
WAVEFORM OF GENERATED VOLTAGE
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
EFFECT OF MORE LOOPS

Additional loops will reduce the fluctuations of the

pulsating DC output and, and the same time, increase the
voltage output
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A
The DC generator is fundamentally an AC generator
because internally, in the armature conductors, the current
reverses periodically. The output voltage only becomes a
DC because the commutator acts as a mechanical reversing
switch which causes the output current to become
unidirectional.
The process performed by the commutator – rectifying the
alternating current generated by the armature coils is called
the commutation process.
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
Simplex-lap, 4-pole, 20 segments, 20 slots showing 1st coil
a

3 4
5
2
6
1
1 2
3

7
20
20

+ 4

19
18

8
19

17

6
-
16

7
-

9
18

15

8
14

10
+
17

13 10
12 11

11
16

12
15
14 13
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
Simplex-lap, 4-pole, 20 segments, 20 slots, complete
diagram a
b
a

Ys = 5
a

d
r
Yc = 1 2
3 4
5
6

e
1
q 1 2

a = 4 paths
20 3

7
20
+ 4

19
18

8
19

17

f
6
-
16

7
p

9
-
18

15

8
14

10
+

17
13 10
12 11

g
11
16
o

12
15
14 13

h
n

i
m

j
l
k
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
Simplex-lap, 4-pole, 20 segments, 20 slots, showing
parallel paths

1 2
20 3
4

19
250 A 500 A
18

5
125 A 125 A
17

6
250 A
16

7
125 A
125 A
15

8
14

9
13 10
12 11
DCARMATURE WINDINGS
A
Simplex-wave, 4-pole, 21 segments, 21 slots partial
diagram

Ys = 5
3 4
2 5

Yc = 10
1

6
21
5 6 7
4 8

7
-

3
20

9
a = 2 paths

8
10
1
+
19

11
21

9
12
20
18

13
19
14
-

10
18 15
17 16

17
11

16
12
15 13
14
DC ARMATURE
A WINDINGS
A
Simplex-wave, 4-pole, 21 segments, 21 slots partial
diagram a
a
b

c
a

Ys = 5

d
r
3 4
5

Yc = 10
2
6

e
1

q
1 2
3

7
20

20
+ 4

19
18
a = 2 paths

8
19

17

f
6
-
16

7
p

9
-
18

15

8
14

10
+

17
13 10
12 11

g
11
16
o
12
15
14 13

h
n

i
m

j
l
k
DCARMATURE
A WINDINGS
A
Simplex-wave, 4-pole, 31 segments, 16 slots, 2-element
coil, complete diagram o
p

DUMMY
ELEMENT a

Ys = 4

b
m
Yc = 15 16
1
2
3

c
4
7 8

a = 2 paths

15
5 6 9
4 10

11

5
2
l

12
29 30 31 1

13 14 15 16 17
14

6
28
27
13

d
18
19 26
20 25
21 22 23 24

7
12
k

11
9
10

e
j

g
h
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
LAP WINDING
• Ys = S/P – k (coil span)
• Yc = m (commutator pitch)
• No. of coil elements = segments/slots
• a = mP (parallel paths)
• The winding must close upon itself
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
WAVE WINDING
• Ys = S/P – k (coil span)
• Yc = C ± m / P/2(must be an integer)
• No. of coil elements = segments/slots
• a = 2m (parallel paths)
• For single-element coil windings, the no. of
slots should be equal to the no. of segments
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
• Other than the simplex wave, the no. of
segments should be one less than 2, 3, 4, etc.
times the number of slot
ex. 16 slots, 31 segments (2-element coil)
16 slots, 47 segments (3-element coil)
18 slots, 71 segments (4-element coil

• A dummy element will result when the no. of slots is

not a multiple integer of segments. A dummy element
is a coil which is not connected electrically but is used
for mechanical balancing
• The winding must close upon itself
DC ARMATURE WINDINGS
A
Draw the following armature windings:
1. duplex lap, 36 slots, 36 segments, 4-pole
2. simplex lap, 36 slots, 72 segments, 4-pole
3. simplex wave, 39 slots, 77 segments, 4-pole
4. duplex wave, 28 slots, 55 segments, 4-pole
DC ARMATURE
A WINDINGS
VOLTAGE GENERATED
The voltage generated by the armature is:

Eg = P  N Z / 60 a

E g = generated voltage, volts

Z = total no. of armature conductors
P = no. of poles
 = flux / pole, Wb
a = no. of armature parallel paths
ARMATURE
A REACTION
Neutral zone

field

MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY THE FIELD

armature

MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY THE A RMATURE CURRENT

ARMATURE
A REACTION

shifted neutral zone

resultan t
armature

+
+
+
f ield

+
+

RESULTANT FLUX field and armature )

ARMATURE
A REACTION
PROBLEMS CREATED BY ARMATURE
REACTION
• flux in the neutral position is no longer zero, and
consequently, a voltage is induced in the coils which are
short-circuited by the brush. As a result, sparking
occurs which varies witrh the generator load.

• The resulting distorted flux causes the generated

voltage to decrese, may be by as much as 10%
ARMATURE
A REACTION
WAYS TO COUNTERACT EFFECTS OF
ARMATURE REACTION
• Shifting the brushes to reduce sparking

• Commutating poles
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATORS

• Pole cores are permanent magnet
Permanent magnet

• Only used for low power applications such as

motorcycle charging systems, exciter systems
• Voltage output is directly proportional to the speed, Eg
 RPM (bec. flux is constant)
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

SEPARATELY-EXCITED
The separately excited type has its field winding excited
by a separate source.

A R M A T U R E W IN D IN G
+ +
F IE L D W IN D IN G
IF IA = IL
F1 A1
+
Vfld FIELD ARM ATURE VT LOAD
G
e x te rn a l d c
s o u rc e F2
A2
- - -
SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT OF THE
SEPARATELY EXCIT ED DC GENERATOR
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
+ +

IF F1 A1 IA IL
+
Eg
Vfld R F VT L OA D RL OAD
Ra
F2
A2

- -

EQUIVA LENT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT OF THE

SEPAR ATELY EXC ITED DC GENER ATOR

IF = Vfld / Rf ……….. Field excitation current

IA = (Eg – VT) / Ra….. Armature current
IA = IL
Ra = armature resistance
Rf = field resistance
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
Magnetisati on curve N2
VT VT
N1
V NL
N3
V FL

due to residual magnetism

I FL
IF IA
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC LOAD CHA RA CTERISTIC

NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC:
• At a particular speed (N), the generated voltage
increases with the excitation current, but saturation
takes place as excitation increases. At higher values
of speed, the generated voltage is higher.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC:
• The terminal voltage decreases with increasing load
current (assuming a constant speed) because of IaRa
drop and armature reaction.

(Vnl – Vfl)
%Voltage Regulation = ---------------- x 100
Vfl
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
VOLTAGE CONTROL
The generator output voltage may be controlled by means
of:
• Speed variation (assuming IF is constant)
Eg  N
• Excitation current variation (assuming speed is
constant) + +

IF IA = IL
F1 A1

Vfld FIELD

F2
G ARM ATURE VT
Eg  IF
LOAD

A2
- -
Rex

VOLTAGE CONT ROL B Y CHANGING

THE EXCITATION (thr ough Rex)
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

SELF-EXCITED : SHUNT GENERATOR

The field winding is connected across the armature. The
voltage generated by the armature (through the build-up
process) excites the shunt field.
A RM ATURE WINDING
+
SHUNT F IE LD WINDING
A1 ISH IL
F1 A1
F1
+
F1 IA
VT SHUNT
VT LOAD
FIELD G ARM.

F2
A2 A2
-
SHUNT GENERATOR SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TH E SHUNT GENER ATOR
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
+

F1 IF A1 IL
+
Eg
R SH F VT L OA D RL OAD
IA
Ra
F2
A2

EQUIVALENT EL ECTRIC CIR CUIT OF THE

SH UNT GENERATOR

IF = VT / Rshf ……….. Field excitation current

IA = (Eg – VT) / Ra….. Armature current
IA = IL + IF
Ra = armature resistance
Rshf= shunt field resistance
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
Magnetisati on curve N2
VT
N1

N3

due to residual magnetism

IF
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC

NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC:
• This is similar to the separately-excited. Due to
residual magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated
even when field current is zero.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
VOLTAGE BUILD-UP OF A SHUNT GENERATOR
Before loading a shunt generator, it is allowed to build up its
voltage. Usually, there is always some present residual
magnetism in the poles, hence a small emf is produced
initially. This emf circulates a small current in the field
circuit which increases the pole flux (provided field circuit
is properly connected to the armature, otherwise this
current may wipe off the residual magnetism. When flux
is increased, generated emf is increased which further
increases the flux and so on.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
CONDITIONS FOR BUILD UP OF A SHUNT
GENERATOR
• There must be some residual magnetism in the field poles.
If residual magnetism has been lost, it can be restored by
supplying the field with an external DC voltage (equal to
the rated voltage) for about 10-20 s. This is called
flashing the field.
• For a given rotation of direction, the shunt field coils
should be correctly connected to the armature, i. e., they
should be so connected that
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

the induced current reinforces the emf produced initially due

to residual magnetism.

•If excited on open circuit, the shunt field resis- tance

should be less than the critical resis-
tance.
• If excited on-load, then its shunt field resistance must be
more than a certain minimum value of resistance.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
NO LOAD CURVE AT OTHER SPEEDS
Magnetisation curve
V
A N1

N2
B

IF
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTIC

For any fixed excitation, E  N, hence:

E2 N2 BC N2
E1 N1 AC N1
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF A SHUNT
GENERATOR
VT There are three main reasons for
V NL the drop in terminal voltage:
V FL 1. IA RA drop
B R EA K DOWN 2. Armature reaction
3. decreased field
I FL current due to
I LOAD decrease in terminal
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC
voltage
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

SELF-EXCITED : SERIES GENERATOR

The field winding is connected in series with the
armature. The load current excites the series
field. Unlike the shunt generator, the series
generator cannot build-up without load.
A RMATURE WI NDING A2 A1
SE RIE S FIELD WINDI NG G +
A1
S1 ARMATURE IL
S2
S1 IA
SERIES
VT LOAD
FIELD
VT

S2
A2

-
S ERIES GE NERATOR SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TH E SERIES GENERATOR
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
Ra Eg +

+
A2 A1
I

S1 I
V LOAD R
R

S2

EQUIVA LEN T ELECTRIC C IRCUIT OF THE

SERIES GENERATOR

ISF = IA = IL……….. series field excitation current

IA = (Eg – VT) / Ra + RS….. Armature current
IL = VT / RL………………..load current
Ra = armature resistance
RL= load resistance
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF A SERIES
GENERATOR
VT The terminal voltage
increases with load current
unstable
because excitation increases
with load current. However,
at high loads, the voltage
IL
LOAD CHA RACTERISTIC starts decreasing due to
excessive demagnetising
effects of armature reaction.
Eg  IL
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

SELF-EXCITED : SHORT SHUNT CUMU -

LATIVE COMPOUND GENERATOR
It contains both a shunt field and series field
winding. The series field winding is in series
with the parallel combination of the armature and
the shunt field winding. SERIES
SERIES FIELD WIND ING ARMATU RE FIELD
+ S1 S2
SHUNT FIELD WINDI NG +
A1
ISH IL
S2 F1 A1

SHUN T IA
VT LOAD
FIELD G A RM.
S1
F2
F2
A2 -
F1
A2
-
SHORT-SHUNT(cumulativ e) GENERATOR SCHEMATIC DIAGRA M OF THE SHORT-SHUN T(cum ulative ) GEN ERATOR
 S1
R SF
S2 +

A IS H F A 1 IL
F1 Eg +
V T LO A D R LO AD
R Sh F IA
Ra
F2 A 2

E Q U IV A L E N T E L E C T R IC C IR C U IT O F T H E
S E R IE S G E N E R A T O R

IA = IShF + IL…….. armature current current

IA = (Eg – VT) / Ra + RSF
IShF = Eg - IARa / RShF = VT + ILRSF
Ra = armature resistance
RL= load resistance
 TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF A SHUNT-WOUND
CUMULATIVE COMPOUND GEN.
VT The flux produced by the
Over
F lat
series winding adds up to
rated output
U nder
the flux produced by the
field winding. That’s why
when the load current
increases, the generated
r ated output
voltage tends to increase.
IL Depending on the degree
LOAD CHARACTERISTIC of compounding, the
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

output voltage may be of the following:

a. VT = Vrated (flat-compounded)
b. VT < Vrated (under-compounded)
c. VT > Vrated (over-compounded)

Compounded generators are used when it is

necessary to maintain a constant voltage at the
end of a long feeder.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

The differential compound generator has an

external characteristic similar to that of a shunt
generator but with large demagnetisation. The
flux produced by the series winding is in
opposition to the flux produced by the shunt
field, thus, as load current increases, the voltage
output decreases rapidly. It is widely used in arc
welding where larger voltage drop is desirable
with increase in current.
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS

SELF-EXCITED : LONG SHUNT CUMU -

LATIVE COMPOUND GENERATOR
It contains both a shunt field and series field
winding. The series field winding is in series
with the armature and this series combination is
in parallel with the shunt field winding. + +
S1
I SH IL
SERIES FIELD WINDING A1 SERIES
F1
S2 FIELD
SHU NT FIELD WINDING SHUNT S2
FIEL D A1 VT LOAD
ARMATURE
F2 IA
S1
F2 G ARM .
A2 -
F1

A2
-
LONG - SHU NT(cumulat ive) GENERATOR SCHEMATIC DIAGRA M OF THE L ONG-SHUN T(cum ulative) GEN ERATOR
TYPES OF
A DC GENERATORS
S1
I I
R
F1
S2
R
A1 I V LO AD R
Eg +
F2

Ra
A2
-

EQU IVALENT ELE CTRIC CIRC UIT OF THE

L ONG-SH UNT GENER ATOR

IA = IShF + IL…….. armature current

IA = (Eg – VT) / Ra + RSF
IShF = Eg – IA (Ra+ RSF) / RShF = VT / RShF
Ra = armature resistance
RL= load resistance
A