DC MACHINES

Maxwell’s Cork screw Rule :

Maxwell’s Cork screw Rule :
Hold the cork screw in yr right
hand and rotate it in clockwise
in such a way that it advances in
the direction of current. Then
the direction in which the hand
rotates will be the direction of
magnetic lines of force .
Fleming’s left hand rule
Fleming’s left hand rule
Used to determine the direction of force
acting on a current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field .
The middle finger , the fore finger and
thumb of the left hand are kept at right
angles to one another .
The middle finger represent the direc
of current
The fore finger represent the directio
magnetic field
The thumb will indicate the direction o
force acting on the conduc
This rule is used in m
Fleming’s Right hand rule
 Fleming’s Right hand rule
Used to determine the direction of emf
induced in a conductor
The middle finger , the fore finger and
thumb of the left hand are kept at
right angles to one another.
The fore finger represent the
direction of magnetic field
The thumb represent the
direction of motion of the
conductor
The middle finger will indicate
the direction
This rule is used in of
DCthe inducted
Generators
Len’s Law
The direction of induced emf is
given by Lenz’s law .
According to this law, the induced
emf will be acting in such a way so
as to oppose the very cause of
production of it .

e = -N (dØ/dt) volts
 DC Generator
Mechanical energy is converted to
electrical energy

Three requirements are essential

1. Conductors
2. Magnetic field
3. Mechanical energy
Working principle
A generator works on the
principles of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction

Whenever a conductor is moved

in the magnetic field , an emf is
induced and the magnitude of the
induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change
of flux linkage.

This emf causes a current flow if

 DC Machine

Commutator
Sectional view of a DC machine
Construction of DC Generator
Field
system
Armature
core
Armature
winding
Commutato
r
Field winding
Rotor and rotor winding
Working principle of DC motor
Working principle of DC motor
Force in DC motor
 Armature winding
There are 2 types of winding
Lap and Wave winding
Lap winding Wave winding
A=P A=2

The armature Itis used in low

windings are current
divided output
into no. and high voltage.
of sections
equal to the no 2 brushes
Field system
It is for uniform magnetic field
within which the armature
rotates.
Electromagnets are preferred in
comparison with permanent
magnets
They are cheap , smaller in size ,
produce greater magnetic effect
and
Field strength can be varied
Field system consists of the
following parts
Yoke
Pole cores
Pole shoes
Field coils
Armature core
The armature core is cylindrical
High permeability silicon steel
stampings
Impregnated
Lamination is to reduce the
eddy current loss
Commutator
Connect with external circuit
Converts ac into unidirectional current
Cylindrical in shape
Made of wedge shaped copper segments
Segments are insulated from each other
Each commutator segment is connected
to armature conductors by means of a cu
strip called riser.
No of segments equal to no of coils
Carbon brush
Carbon brushes are used in DC
machines because they are soft
materials
It does not generate spikes when they
contact commutator
To deliver the current thro armature
Carbon is used for brushes because it
has negative temperature coefficient of
resistance
Self lubricating , takes its shape ,
improving area of contact
Brush rock and holder
Carbon brush
Brush leads (pig tails)
Brush rocker ( brush gear )
Front end cover
Rear end cover
Cooling fan
Bearing
Terminal box
 EMF equation
Let,
Ø= flux per pole in weber
Z = Total number of conductor
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths
N =armature speed in rpm
Eg = emf generated in any on of
the parallel path
 EMF equation
Flux cut by 1 conductor
in 1 revolution =P*φ
Flux cut by 1 conductor in
60 sec = P φ N /60
Avg emf generated in 1
conductor = PφN/60
Number of conductors in
each parallel path = Z /A

Eg = PφNZ/60A
 Types of DC Generator
DC generators are generally classified
according to their method of excitation .

Separately excited DC generator

Self excited D C generator

Further classification of DC Generator
Series wound generator
Shunt wound generator
Compound wound generator
Short shunt & Long shunt
Cumulatively compound
&
Differentially compound
 Characteristics
No load saturation characteristic (Eo/If)

Internal or Total characteristic (E/ Ia)

External characteristic (V/I)

 Critical field resistance
For appreciable generation of emf, the
field resistance must be always less
certain resistance, that resistance is
called as the critical resistance of the
machine .
 General terms used in Armature
reaction
Magnetic neutral axis :
It is perpendicular to the lines of force between
the two opposite adjacent poles.
Leading pole Tip (LPT) :
It is the end of the pole which first comes in
contact with the armature.
Trailing pole tip :
It is the end of the pole which comes in contact
later with the armature.
 Armature Reaction
Interaction of Main field flux with Armature
field flux
 Effects of Armature Reaction
It decreases the efficiency of the machine
It produces sparking at the brushes
It produces a demagnetising effect on the
main poles
It reduces the emf induced
Self excited generators some times fail to
build up emf
 Armature reaction remedies
1.Brushes must be shifted to the new position of
the MNA
2.Extra turns in the field winding
3.Slots are made on the tips to increase the
reluctance
4. The laminated cores of the shoe are staggered
5. In big machines the compensating winding at
pole shoes produces a flux which just opposes
the armature mmf flux automatically.
Commutation
The change in direction of current takes
place when the conductors are along the
brush axis .
During this reverse process brushes short
circuit that coil and undergone
commutation
Due to this sparking is produced and the
brushes will be damaged and also causes
voltage dropping.
 Losses in DC Generators
1. Copper losses or variable losses
2. Stray losses or constant losses
Stray losses : consist of (a) iron losses or core
losses and (b) windage and friction losses .
Iron losses : occurs in the core of the machine
due to change of magnetic flux in the core .
Consist of hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss.
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .
 Losses
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .

Eddy current losses : directly proportional to

the flux density , frequency , thickness of the
lamination .
Windage and friction losses are constant due to
the opposition of wind and friction .
Applications
Shunt Generators:
a. in electro plating
b. for battery recharging
c. as exciters for AC generators.
Series Generators :
A. As boosters
B. As lighting arc lamps
DC Motors
Converts Electrical energy into Mechanical
energy
Construction : Same for Generator and
motor
Working principle : Whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in the
magnetic field , a force is set up on the
conductor.
 Back emf
The induced emf in the rotating armature
conductors always acts in the opposite
direction of the supply voltage .
According to the Lenz’s law, the direction of
the induced emf is always so as to oppose
the cause producing it .
In a DC motor , the supply voltage is the cause
and hence this induced emf opposes the
supply voltage.
Classification of DC motors
DC motors are mainly classified
into three types as listed below:
Shunt motor
Series motor
Compound motor
Differential compound
Cumulative compound
Torque
The turning or twisting force
about an axis is called torque .
P = T * 2 πN/ 60
Eb Ia = Ta * 2 πN/ 60
T ∞φIa
Ta ∞ I2a
Characteristic of DC motors
T/ Ia characteristic

N/ I a characteristic

N/T characteristic
Speed control of DC motors
According to the speed equation of a dc motor
N ∞ Eb/φ
∞ V- Ia Ra/ φ
Thus speed can be controlled by-
Flux control method: By Changing the flux by
controlling the current through the field
winding.
Armature control method: By Changing the
armature resistance which in turn changes the
voltage applied across the armature
Flux control
Advantages of flux control:
It provides relatively smooth and easy control
Speed control above rated speed is possible
As the field winding resistance is high the field
current is small. Power loss in the external
resistance is small . Hence this method is
economical
Disadvantages:
Flux can be increased only upto its rated value
High speed affects the commutation, motor
operation becomes unstable
Armature voltage control method
The speed is directly proportional to the
voltage applied across the armature .
Voltage across armature can be
controlled by adding a variable
resistance in series with the armature
Potential divider control :
If the speed control from zero to the rated
speed is required , by rheostatic method
then the voltage across the armature can
be varied by connecting rheostat in a
Starters for DC motors
Needed to limit the starting
current .
1. Two point starter
2. Three point starter
3. Four point starter
 Testing of DC machines
To determine the efficiency of as DC motor , the
output and input should be known.
There are two methods.
The load test or The direct method
The indirect method
Direct method: In this method , the efficiency is
determined by knowing the input and output
power of the motor.
Indirect method: Swinburne’s test is an indirect
method of testing DC shunt machines to
predetermine the effficency , as a motor and as a
Generator. In this method, efficiency is calculated
Applications:
Shunt Motor:
Blowers and fans
Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
Lathe machines
Machine tools
Milling machines
Drilling machines
Applications:
Series Motor:
Cranes
Hoists , Elevators
Trolleys
Conveyors
Electric locomotives
Applications:
Cumulative compound Motor:
Rolling mills
Punches
Shears
Heavy planers
Elevators
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