Unit 3

Electrical Machines
 DC Generator

DC generator is an electrical machine, which converts mechanical energy to

electrical energy

Mechanical energy Electrical Energy

Generator

Construction:
Parts of a DC Generator:
Yoke
Field system
Armature
Brushes
Commutator
YOKE :
• It is the outermost solid part of the machine. It act as the protecting cover for the
whole machine and protects all the inner parts of the machine from damage.
• It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
• It is made up of cast iron.

Field System:
• It consists of main field poles and field winding.
• The poles are in the shape of horse shoe so that uniform distribution of flux is
obtained in the air gap between the poles and rotating parts.
• The field winding is placed over each pole and all these are connected in series.

Armature:
• The armature core consists of armature core and armature windings.
• The armature conductors rotate under the poles and hence the flux produced by the
field magnet is cut by the armature.
• Due to rotation of conductors between north and south poles, hysteresis loss will be
there. To reduce that silicon steel is used in the armature.
• Due to rotation of armature under the flux eddy current will be there hence solid iron armature
is used and we can also reduce eddy current by insulating the armature.
• The insulation is 0.4 mm to 0.5 mm thickness
• The eddy current and hysteresis loss produce heat in the conductors, so ventilating ducts are
used to remove the heat.

Commutator:
• It converts the alternating emf in to unidirectional emf
• It is made up of wedge shaped segments and it is insulated from each other by thin layers of
mica.

Brushes:
• A set of brushes made up of carbon or graphite is fixed to collect the current from
commutator and to convey it to the external load.
 Principle of Operation

Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced which is called induced current.
 Generator is a dynamic machine. It operates on the principle on
faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

The EMF generated is a dynamically induced EMF

Dynamically Induced emf can be created by,

• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.
• A steady magnetic field produced by the pole pieces of a magnet N and S.
• A single turn coil ABCD is placed in the field produced between the pole
pieces.
• The coil rotated by means of a prime mover.
• Thus as per faradays law, an emf induced in the coil. Such an emf is
basically alternating.
• The bidirectional induced emf is made unidirectional using the commutator.
Flemings Right hand rule
The magnitude of the induced emf is given by,
E = B * l* V
Where ,
L = Active length of conductor in metre
V = Relative velocity of conductor in metre / sec

If angle between the plane of rotation and the plane of flux is θ, then the
induced emf is given by

E = B * l* V Sinθ
 Types of Armature winding
Lap winding & Wave winding

Lap winding
Wave Winding
 Difference between Lap and Wave winding

Lap winding Wave winding

Number of parallel paths (A) = P Number of parallel paths (A) = 2

Number of brush sets required is equal to Number of brush sets required is always
number of poles two

Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for high voltage, low current
capacity generators capacity generators

Normally used for generators of capacity Preferred for generators of capacity less
more than 500 A than 500 A
EMF Equation of DC Generator
 Types of DC Generator

Separately Excited DC Generator

Ra
 Here the field winding is supplied from external DC supply hence it is
called as separately excited generator.
If = Field Current
Ia = Armature Current
IL = Load Current
Vt = Terminal Voltage
E = Induced emf

Here,
Armature current Ia = Load Current IL

Then Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
 Self Excited DC Generator

When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the

generator itself then it is said to be self excited generator.

Types of self excited generator

1. Shunt Generator
2. Series Generator
3. Compound Generator
DC Shunt Generator

Ra
 When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and
the combination across the load, then the generator is called shunt generator.

From the figure,

Ia = IL + Ish
Ish = Shunt field current

Voltage across load Vt = IshRsh

Rsh = Shunt field resistance

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
 Rse
DC Series Generator

Ra
 When the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding while supplying the load then it is series generator.

From the figure,

Ia = Ise = IL
Ish = Shunt field current
Ise = Series field current

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
 DC Compound Generator

Long Shunt

Ra
 In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the series
combination of armature and series field winding.
From the figure,
Ia = Ise
Ia = IL + Ish

Voltage across shunt field winding Vt = IshRsh

Induced emf E is given by,

E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush
Short Shunt
 In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the armature,
excluding series field winding.
From the figure,
Ia = Ise + Ish
IL = Ise
Ia = IL + Ish
 Applications of DC Generator
Separately Excited DC Generators
• Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they
have a wide range of voltage output.
• Used as a supply source of DC motors.
Shunt Generators
• DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes.
• Used to charge the battery.
• Providing excitation to the alternators.
Series Generators
• DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative
braking for providing field excitation current.
• Used as a booster in distribution networks.
• Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power
supply.
• Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.
• Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding
purpose.
 DC MOTORS

DC motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy based on the
faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Construction :
Parts of a DC motor:
Yoke
Field system
Armature
Brushes
Commutator
Principle of operation:
DC machine consists of both armature and field windings connected to the DC supply. Here
The armature is the rotating part and field winding is kept stationary.

faraday’s law :
whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force
tending to move it.
 If a current carrying conductor is placed between two magnetic poles, then both
the fields will be distorted.
 Above the conductor the field is weakened (less flux) and below the conductor the field is
strengthened. Therefore the conductor tends to move upwards.

The direction of the current is reversed, then the field below the conductor is less and field
above the conductor is more. Then the conductor move downwards.
The direction of motion of conductor is given by fleming’s left hand rule. The thumb, the
forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held such that the fingers are mutually
perpendicular to each other.

• Fore finger indicates the direction of field

• Middle finger indicates the direction of current
• Thumb indicates the direction of motion of conductor
BACK EMF:
when a motor rotates, the conductors housed in the armature also rotate and cu
of force. So an emf is induced in the armature conductors and this induced em
voltage as per lenz’s law. This induced emf is called back emf or counter emf..

Where,
Ф = flux per pol
Z= number of c
N= speed in rpm
P= numbe
A= numbe

Equivalent circuit of motor

Voltage equation of the motor:

From the above, armature current is given as,

Types of DC motors:
The classification is based on the connections of field winding in relation to the armature.
(i) Separately excited DC motor
Here, the field winding and armature winding are separated.
The field winding is excited with a separate DC source, hence it is separately excited DC
motor.
(ii) Self excited motor:
Here both armature and field excited by the same DC source.

DC series motor ( It should not be started without load ):

Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
The field winding have less number of turns. R se is the resistance of the series field winding

IL = line current
Ia = Ise = IL
DC shunt motor (Constant flux motor or Constant speed motor):
Here the field winding is connected in parallel to the armature. Ф α I sh
DC compound motor:
a) Long shunt compound motor:
Here the shunt field winding is connected across both armature and series field winding.
b) Short shunt compound motor:
Here the shunt field winding is across the armature and series field winding is connected in
series with this combination.
Applications of DC Motor
 Transformer
The transformer is a static device which transfer electrical power
from one AC circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current,
without any change in the frequency.
 Use of transformers in transmission system

NOTE: Transformers can’t be used in DC transmission

 Principle of Working

It works on the principle of faraday law of mutual induction.

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively
coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an emf gets
induced in the other coil.
• Transformer consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated
but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high
mutual inductance.
• The coil connected to a source is Primary winding(P), The coil connected
to the load is Secondary winding(S).
• The Primary winding have N1 number of turns and secondary winding
have N2 number of turns
• When primary winding is excited by an AC source, it circulates an
alternating current. This current produces alternating flux (ϕ).
• Thus the alternating flux links with secondary winding through the
common magnetic core.
• As the flux is alternating, according to faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, mutually induced emf gets developed in the secondary winding,
this emf drives a current through it.
• Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an
electrical energy gets transferred from primary to secondary.
 EMF equation of Transformer

Sinusoidal Flux
• The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage.
Hence the flux produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum
value of ϕm
The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced emf are,
Φ = Flux
ϕm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = RMS value of the primary induced emf
E2 = RMS value of the secondary induced emf
According to faradays law,
Average emf per turn = dϕ / dt = change in flux / Time required for change in flux

Consider the 1/4th cycle of the flux shown in figure, complete cycle gets completed in
1 / f seconds hence for 1/4th time, the change in flux is from 0 to ϕm
Then,
dϕ / dt = (ϕm – 0) / (1 / 4f)
= 4f ϕm Wb/sec or volts
As ϕ is sinusoidal, the induced emf in each turnof both the winding is also sinusoidal.
For sinusoidal quantity,
Form factor = RMS value / Avg value
RMS value = 1.11 * Avg value
Therefore,
RMS value of induced emf per turn = 1.11*4fϕm = 4.44 f ϕm

There are N1 number of primary turns hence the RMS value of induced emf of primary
denoted as E1 is,
E1 = N1 * 4.44 f ϕm volts

For secondary,
E2 = N2 * 4.44 f ϕm volts
 Applications of Transformer

The main application of Transformer is to Step up ( Increase) or Step down

(Decrease) the level of Voltage.
in other words, Increase or decries the level of Current, while Power must be
same.
Other Uses and application of Transformer:
It step up the level of voltage at generation side before transmission and
distribution.
in distribution side, for commercial or domestic use of electricity, transformer
step down ( decries) the level of voltage for example form 11kV to 220 V
single phase and 440 V three phase.
The Current Transformer and Potential Transformer also used power system
and in the industry. Also, it is used for impedance matching. So these were
the simple uses and application of transformer.