(8th edition)

Development - the gradual modification of anatomical structures during the period from fertilization to maturity

y Major Phases of Development

 fertilization - fusion of the male and female

gametes  embryological development - first two months after fertilization  fetal development - from the beginning of the 9th week until birth  postnatal development - commences at birth
(8th edition)

Terms to denote Fetal Growth

OVUM - From ovulation to fertilization ZYGOTE - From fertilization to implantation EMBRYO - From implantation to 5-8 weeks FETUS - From 5-8 weeks until term
(8th edition)

Gestation - the time spent in prenatal development

y Can be divided into 3 three month trimesters:
first trimester - embryological development

and early fetal development; this trimester begins with fertilization; the basic structure of all the major organ systems appear second trimester - development of organs and organ systems; by the end of this trimester the fetus looks human

(8th edition)

third trimester - characterized by rapid fetal

growth; by early in this trimester most of the organ systems become fully functional; this trimester ends in birth.

(8th edition)

Fertilization
y Also referred as conception, impregnation, or fecundation y Is the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon. y Involves the fusion of two haploid gametes with 23 chromosomes each to produce a zygote that contains 46 chromosomes. y fertilization generally occurs in the outer third of fallopian tube, ampullar portion. y oocyte - it is surrounded by corona radiata which is a protective layer of cells, and a ring of polysaccharide fluid the zona pellucida then the oocyte will travel through the uterine tube toward the uterus.
(8th edition)

y sperm (fig. 28.2) - are introduced into the female

reproductive tract; of the 200 million spermatozoa ejaculated into the vagina, about 10,000 enter the uterine tube, and fewer than 100 sperm reach the egg. y Reaches the cervix within eighty seconds. y Reaches the fallopian tube within 5 minutes after deposition.

(8th edition)

y the acrosomal cap of sperm contains the enzyme

hyaluronidase which breaks down the bonds between the cells of the corona radiata y dozens of sperm are needed to penetrate the corona radiata y a single sperm makes contact with the oocyte membrane through CAPACITATION- a final process that sperm must undergo to be redy for fertilization. y Consist of changes in the plasma-membrane of the sperm head, which reveal the sperm- binding receptor sites.
(8th edition)

Cleavage (fig. 28.4) - is a series of cell divisions that subdivide the cytoplasm of the zygote

(8th edition)

y Then the zygote migrates over the next 3- 4

days towards the uterus. y The first division is completed roughly 24 hours after fertilization

y The following divisions occur at 10-12 hour

intervals: morula - solid ball of cells that results after 3 days of cleavage; all of the cells are identical; the morula reaches the uterus on day 4
(8th edition)

blastocyst - hollow ball of cells after 3

more days of cleavage (6th day)  the cells are no longer identical  the inner cavity is called the blastocele (=blastocyst cavity); the outer layer of cells is called the trophoblast  the inner cell mass is a group of cells that will become the embryo; the trophoblast protects the inner cell mass from the outside environment
(8th edition)

Implantation (fig. 28.5)- seven days after fertilization, implantation begins as the blastocyst connects to the endometrium of the uterus

(8th edition)

y The trophoblast erodes a path through the

endometrium by secreting hyaluronidase y The trophoblast continues to enlarge and spread into the surrounding endometrium y The erosion of uterine glands releases nutrients that are absorbed by the trophoblast and distributed by diffusion to the inner cell mass. y Trophoblastic extensions encircle endometrial capillaries y Capillary walls are destroyed and maternal blood

(8th edition)

y percolates through trophoblastic channels called

lacunae y Villi - extend from the trophoblast into the endometrium and larger endometrial blood vessels are surrounded and broken down resulting in greater blood flow through the lacunae y Implantation most often occurs in the fundus or body of the uterus; y Ectopic pregnancy - when implantation occurs anywhere but the uterus; if implantation takes place in the uterine tubes it can be lifethreatening
(8th edition)

Embryonic Development: Gastrula to Fetus

y Amniotic cavity - formed by the time of implantation in the blastocyst; this cavity is formed when the inner mass separates from the trophoblast y There are two layers of cells that comprise the inner mass. (AMNIOTIC cavity and the yolk sac) y The 3 Germ Layers - these three layers of cells will differentiate into all of the structures of the body:
 ectoderm - will form the skin, hair, nails, brain, spinal

cord, epithelium of nasal passages, and mouth

(8th edition)

 mesoderm - will form the bones, muscles, heart, blood

vessels, kidneys  endoderm - will form the pancreas, thyroid gland, liver, urinary bladder, respiratory epithelium, digestive epithelium

(8th edition)

y Four extraembryonic membranes:

 yolk sac - important site of blood cell formation  amnion - surrounds the fluid-filled amniotic cavity

which protects the embryo  allantois - will give rise to the urinary bladder  chorion - combination of mesoderm and trophoblast that will form the placenta
y Chorionic villi - branch and enlarge within the endometrium; embryonic blood vessels develop within each villus and blood blood flow begins in them by the beginning of the 3rd week; they provide the surface area for active and passive exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between fetal and maternal blood streams
(8th edition)

y Placentation - the enlarging chorion becomes

the placenta
by the end of the 4th week a body stalk has

formed that connects the embryo and chorion; the body stalk contains blood vessels that carry blood to and from the placenta the placenta becomes concentrated in a discshaped area in the endometrium near the end of the first trimester the fetus moves farther from the placenta
(8th edition)

the fetus and placenta remain connected by the

umbilical cord which now contains the placental blood vessels the placenta provides nutrients to the embryofetus, a site for gas exchange between the mother and the embryo-fetus, and a place where the embryo-fetus can get rid of its wastes Latin word for pancake

(8th edition)

y Umbilical arteries - these paired arteries carry blood from the embryo-fetus to the placenta (fig. 28.14) y Umbilical vein - this vein carries nutrient and oxygen rich blood from the placenta to the embryo-fetus (fig. 28.14)

*Mother and baby's blood do not mix!

(8th edition)

The Endocrine Placenta - the placenta produces and releases hormones

(8th edition)

y hCG - human chorionic gonadotropin appears in the bloodstream soon after implantation
 the presence of hCG in the urine is a reliable indication

of pregnancy; pregnancy kits test for the presence of this hormone

 hCG maintains the integrity of the corpus luteum and

promotes the secretion of progesterone

 in the absence of hCG the pregnancy would end as the

endometrium is sloughed off; in the presence of hCG, the corpus luteum persists for 3-4 months
 by the end of the 1st trimester the placenta is secreting

estrogens and progesterone and the corpus luteum is no longer needed

(8th edition)

y hPL - human placental lactogen; helps prepare the mammary glands for milk production y Relaxin - peptide hormone that has several functions:
 relaxin increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis

which permits the pelvis to expand during delivery

 it triggers the dilation of the cervix which allows the

fetus to move out of the uterus and into the vaginal canal
 it suppresses the release of oxytocin by the

hypothalamus and delays the onset of labor contractions

y Progesterone and Estrogens - maintain the endometrial lining which allows the pregnancy to continue; at the end of the third trimester, estrogen production accelerates, which stimulates labor
(8th edition)

(8th edition)