Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

ECE1022A

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 UNIT-III

Introduction to Integrated Circuits

Technology

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• VLSI
• Very-Large-Scale Integration
• Today’s complex VLSI chips
• The number of transistors has exceeded 120 million
• Die area is typically about 1cm2
• Moore’s law
(Gordon Moore, one of the cofounders of the Intel Corporation)
The number of transistors on a chip would double about every
18 months

In 1965, Gordon Moore made a prediction that set the pace for
our modern digital revolution. From careful observation of an
emerging trend, Moore extrapolated that computing would
dramatically increase in power, and decrease in relative cost, at
an exponential pace
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 Milestones for IC Industry
1947: Bardeen, Brattain & Shockley invented the transistor, foundation
of the IC industry.
1952: SONY introduced the first transistor-based radio.
1958: Kilby invented integrated circuits (ICs).
1965: Moore’s law.
1968: Noyce and Moore founded Intel.
1970: Intel introduced 1K DRAM.

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 Milestones for IC Industry
˙1971: Intel announced 4-bit 4004 microprocessors (2250
transistors).
˙1976/81: Apple II/IBM PC.
˙1984: Xilinx invented FPGA’s.
˙1985: Intel began focusing on microprocessor products.
˙1987: TSMC was founded (fabless IC design).
˙1991: ARM introduced its first embeddable RISC IP core

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 Milestones for IC Industry (Cont’d)
1996: Samsung introduced 1G DRAM.
1998: IBM announces1GHz experimental microprocessor.
1999/earlier: System-on-Chip (SOC) applications.
2002/earlier: System-in-Package (SIP) technology.
An Intel P4 processor contains 42 million transistors
A dual-core mobile of the Intel Core i3/i5/i7 has around 1.75 Billion
transistors for a die size of 101.83 mm²

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 SoC- System on a chip
An integrated circuit (also known as a "chip")
is that which integrates all components of
a computer or other electronic system. These
components typically (but not always) include
a central processing
unit (CPU), memory, input/output ports
and secondary storage – all on a
single substrate or microchip, the size of a
coin.

As they are integrated on a single substrate,

SoCs consume much less power and take up
much less area than multi-chip designs with
equivalent functionality

Commonly used in embedded systems and

the Internet of Things.
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 System In Package
A system in package (SiP) or system-in-a-package is a
number of integrated circuits enclosed in a single module
(package).

The SiP performs all or most of the functions of an

electronic system, and is typically used inside a mobile
phone, digital music player, etc.

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 Classification of Circuits based on
Different Criteria
Electronic circuits can be classified into different types based on
different criteria

 Based on connections: Series circuits and Parallel circuits

 Based on the size and manufacturing process of circuit:

Integrated circuits and Discrete circuits

 Based on signal used in circuit: Analog circuits and Digital

circuits

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Discrete Circuits

Disadvantages of Discrete Circuits

 Assembling and wiring of all individual discrete
components take more time and occupies a larger
space on PCB
 Replacement of a failed component is complicated in
an existing circuit or system.
 The circuit elements are connected using soldering
process that may cause less reliability.
 To overcome these problems of reliability and space
conservation, integrated circuits are developed.
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 Integrated Circuits

 It is called Integrated circuit or IC or microchip or chip

 It is a microscopic electronic circuit array formed by the

fabrication of various electronic components

 Components (resistors, capacitors, transistors,)are

placed on semiconductor material (silicon) wafer

 It can perform operations similar to the large discrete

electronic circuits made of discrete electronic
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IC- Integrated circuit

• ICs have three key advantages over digital circuits built from discrete
components

• Small size
• ICs are much smaller, both transistors and wires are
shrunk to micrometer sizes, compared to the centimeter
scales of discrete components
• High speed
• Communication within a chip is faster than
communication between chips on a PCB (Printed Circuit
Board)
• Low power consumption
• Logic operations within a chip take much less power
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Different Types of Integrated Circuits

Classification of Integrated Circuits is done based on

various criteria.

Based on the intended application, the ICs are

classified as:

 Analog integrated circuits

 Digital integrated circuits

 Mixed integrated circuits

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 Analog Integrated Circuits
 The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range
of signal are called as Analog ICs.

 These are subdivided as linear Integrated Circuits (Linear

ICs) and Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs).

 The frequently used analog IC is an operational amplifier

or simply called as an op-amp -IC 741

 It consists of very less number of transistors compared to

the digital ICs.

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 Digital Integrated Circuits
 The integrated circuits that operate only at a few defined
levels instead of operating over all levels of signal
amplitude are called as Digital ICs.

 These ICs using multiple number of digital logic gates,

multiplexers, flip flops and other electronic components of
circuits.

 These logic gates work with binary input data or digital

input data.

 Such as 0 (low or false or logic 0) and 1 (high or true or

logic 1).

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 Digital Integrated Circuits
 These digital ICs are frequently used in the computers,
microprocessors, digital signal, processors, computer networks
etc.

 There are different types of Digital Integrated Circuits.

 Programmable ICs, memory chips, logic ICs, power management

ICs and interface ICs.

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 Mixed Integrated Circuits

 It is the combination of analog and digital ICs on a single chip

are called as Mixed ICs.

 These ICs functions as Digital to Analog converters, Analog to

Digital converters and clock/timing ICs.

 This mixed-signal Systems-on-a-chip is a result of advances in

the integration technology.

 It enabled to integrate digital, multiple analog and RF functions

on a single chip.

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IC Fabrication

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IC Fabrication

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 IC Packaging
Basic types of IC packages
• The metal can or transistor pack: chip is encapsulated in a metal
or plastic case. Available with 3,5,8,10 or 12 pins
• LM117 (voltage regulator) has 3 pins
• Power op-amps, audio power amplifiers have 5 pins
• General purpose op-amps come in 8,10 or 12 pins

• The flat pack : the chip is enclosed in a rectangular ceramic case

with terminal leads extending through the sides and ends.
Comes with 8, 10, 14 or 16 pins

• The dual-in-line package (DIP): chip is mounted inside a plastic

or ceramic case
• Most widely used
• Available in 12, 14, 16 and 20 pins
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 SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI Packages

ICs are classified according to the number of components integrated

on the same chip;

• Small scale integration < 10 components

e.g. gate circuits

• Medium Scale integration < 100 components

e.g. LICs and Combinational Logic Circuits

• Large scale integration > 100 components

e.g. Sequential Logic Circuits

• Very Large Scale integration > 1000 components

e.g. Microprocessor IC
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Manufacturer’s Designation for ICs

Each manufacturer uses a specific code and assigns a specific

type number to the ICs it produces. Examples are-

Fairchild
Analog Devices AD
Atmel AT
National Semiconductor LM
Motorola MC
Signetics NE
Texas Instruments CA/CD

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Example of Analog IC

Operational Amplifier

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Operational Amplifier: OP-AMP
• Linear Integrated Circuit
• Linear– Output signal varies according to the input signal
• Integrated – all components are fabricated on a single chip

• Direct coupled high gain amplifier

• Versatile device – amplifies ac as well as dc signals
• Originally designed for computing mathematical functions as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, hence the
name
• Used for a variety of applications such as ac and dc signal
amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators,
regulators, etc.

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Symbol of Op-Amp

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Op-amp IC Pinout diagram

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Block diagram of op-amp

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Block Diagram of OP-AMP

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Internal Diagram of Op-Amp

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 Stages of internal block diagram
• Input Stage - The input stage is a Dual input balanced output
differential amplifier. The two amplifiers are applied at
inverting or non inverting terminals. This stage provides most
of voltage gain of the op-amp and decides input resistance
value R1.

• Intermediate Stage - It is driven by output of the input stage.

This stage is dual input unbalanced output differential amp.
This stage provides additional voltage gain to the input signals.

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 Stages of internal block diagram
• Level shifting stage - This is third stage in the block diagram of
op-amp. Due to direct coupling between first two stage the input of
level shifting stage is an amplifying system with non-zero DC level.
Level shifting stage is used to bring this DC level to a zero volt with
respect to ground.

• Output Stage - This is normally complementary output stage. It

increases magnitude of voltage and rises the current supplying
capacity of the op-amp. It also provides low output resistance. The
output stage is a push pull of two transistors.

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 Op Amps Input Modes

Single Ended Mode

Signal is applied to inverting terminal

Signal is applied to non-inverting terminal

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 Op Amps Input Modes
Differential Mode

Common Mode

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Input Signal Modes

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Ideal Op-amp and Practical Op-amp Circuit

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Op-Amp Parameters
• 1. Open-loop voltage gain, Go
• 2. Input impedance, Zin(Ω)
• 3. Output impedance, Zo(Ω)
• 4. Input Offset current, Ios (nA)
• 5. Input Bias current, IBIAS (nA)
• 6. Input Offset voltage, Vos (mV)
• 7. Slew rate, SR (V/μs)
• 8. CMRR
• 9. SVRR / PSRR
• 10 Gain Bandwidth product

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Maximum Output Voltage Swing (VO(p-p))

• With no input signal, the output of an opamp is ideally 0 V.

• When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-
to-peak output signal are Vcc.
• In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never
reached. It varies with the load connected to the op-amp and
increases directly with load resistance.
• For example, the Fairchild KA741 datasheet shows a typical
Vo(p-p) of 13V for Vcc = 15V when RL = 2KΩ and
Vo(p-p) increases to 14V when RL = 10KΩ.

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 Op-Amp Parameters

Open-loop voltage gain

• The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal

voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components.
• The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal
design.
• Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB)
and is not a well-controlled parameter.
• Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the
large-signal voltage gain.

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Input offset voltage

• The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
• In a practical op-amp, however, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error),
appears at the output when no differential input voltage is
applied.
• Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter
voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an op-amp.
• The input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc voltage
required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts.
• Typical values of input offset voltage are in the range of 2 mV
or less. In the ideal case, it is 0 V.

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Input bias current
• The input terminals of a bipolar differential amplifier are the
transistor bases and, therefore, the input currents are the base
currents.
• The input bias current is the dc current required by the inputs of
the amplifier to properly operate the first stage.
• By definition, the input bias current is the average of both input
currents and is calculated as follows:

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Input offset current

• Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their
difference is zero.
• In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly
equal.
• The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the input bias
currents, expressed as an absolute value.

IOS = | I1 – I2 |

• Typical value is 200 nA

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 Op-Amp Parameters

Input Impedance

• The differential input impedance is the total resistance between

the inverting and the noninverting inputs, as illustrated in Figure
• It is measured by determining the change in bias current for a
given change in differential input voltage.

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Output Impedance

• The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output

terminal of the op-amp, as indicated in Figure

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Slew rate

• The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage

for a step input voltage. 
• The slew rate makes the output voltage to change at a slower
rate than the applied input. 
• Max rate of change of output voltage with time. i.e. dv/dt
(max) or ΔV/Δt max expressed in (volts/µs) .
• Slew rate is usually measured in the unity gain non-inverting
amplifier configuration
• Typically it is 0.5 V/μs

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Slew rate

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Slew Rate Numerical

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 Op-Amp Parameters
SVRR (Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio) or
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)

• Power-supply rejection ratio PSRR is the ratio of the change in

input offset voltage to the corresponding change in power-
supply.
• The PSRR is expressed in mV/V or dB
 
PSRR = ΔVos / ΔV
 

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 Op-Amp Parameters
Common Mode Rejection Ratio­(CMRR)

• The output signal due to the common mode input voltage is zero,
but it is nonzero in a practical device.
• CMRR is the measure of the amplifier's ability to reject common
mode signals
• The output voltage is proportional to the difference between the
voltages applied to its two input terminals.  
• When the two input voltages are equal, ideally the output
voltage should be zero.
• It is a metric used to quantify the ability of the device to reject
common-mode signals, i.e. those that appear simultaneously and
in-phase on both inputs.

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Common Mode Rejection Ratio­(CMRR)
• A signal applied to both input terminals of the op-amp is called
as common-mode signal. Usually it is an unwanted noise
voltage.
• CMRR is defined as the ratio of the open loop differential
voltage gain Aol to the common mode voltage gain Acm

CMRR = Aol / Acm

CMRR=20 log[Aol / Acm]  dB

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CMRR Example

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 Op-Amp Parameters

Gain Bandwidth Product

• It is the bandwidth of the op-amp when the voltage gain is 1
• Typically it is 1 MHz
• Also called closed-loop bandwidth, unity gain bandwidth and
small-signal bandwidth
GBP=Av × f
Where:
GBP = op amp gain bandwidth product 
Av = voltage gain 
f = cutoff frequency (Hz) 

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Frequency Response of OP-AMP and Bandwidth

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 Op Amp Parameters
Parameter values for op-amps IDEAL PRACTICAL

1. Open-loop voltage gain, Go(V/V) INF 2,00,000

2. Input impedance, Zin(Ω) INF 2 MΩ

3. Output impedance, Zo(Ω) 0 75 Ω

4. Input Offset current, Ios (nA) 0 20 nA

5. Input Bias current, IBIAS (nA) 0 80 nA

6. Input Offset voltage, Vos (mV) 0 2 mV

7. Slew rate, SR (V/μs) INF 0.5 V/microsec

8. CMRR INF 90 dB

9. SVRR / PSRR INF 96 dB

10 Gain Bandwidth product INF 1 MHz 55

Comparison of Parameters

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What is negative feedback?
• Negative feedback is the most useful concepts in OPAMP
applications.

• It is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of

an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes the input signal.

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Negative Feedback / Closed Loop configuration

Negative feedback is illustrated in the Figure.

The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180°

out of phase with the input signal.

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Why Use Negative Feedback?
• The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high
(usually greater than 100,000).
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp into its
saturated output states.
• In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp can drive it into
saturation.
• For example, assume Vin = 1 mV and Aol = 100,000. Then:
VinAol = (1 mV)(100,000) = 100 V
• Since the output level of an op-amp can never reach 100 V, it is
driven deep into saturation and the output is limited to its maximum
output levels, i. e. Vcc.
• With negative feedback, the closed loop voltage gain (A cl) can be
reduced and controlled so that the op-amp can function as a linear
amplifier.
• In addition to providing a controlled, stable voltage gain, negative
feedback also provides for control of the input and output impedances
and amplifier bandwidth. 59
Why Use Negative Feedback?

Without negative feedback, a small input voltage drives the

op-amp to its output limits and it becomes nonlinear.

Positive Saturation

Negative Saturation

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Effects of negative feedback on op-amp
performance

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Closed-Loop Voltage Gain, Acl

• The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an

external negative feedback circuit that connects the output to
the inverting input.

• The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-

amp with external feedback.

• The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external

component values and can be precisely controlled by them.

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 Noninverting Amplifier
• An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a noninverting
amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure.
• The input signal is applied to the noninverting (+) input.
• The output is applied back to the inverting input through the feedback circuit
(closed loop) formed by the input resistor Ri and the feedback resistor Rf.
• This creates negative feedback as: Resistors Ri and Rf form a voltage-divider
circuit, which reduces Vout and connects the reduced voltage Vf to the
inverting input.

The feedback voltage is expressed as

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 Noninverting Amplifier

Then applying basic algebra,

Fig. Differential input, Vin - Vf.

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 Noninverting Amplifier
Since the overall voltage gain of the amplifier in is Vout/Vin, it can be
expressed as

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Closed loop Gain
• Notice that the closed-loop voltage gain is not at all
dependent on the op-amp’s open-loop voltage gain under the
condition Aol B >> 1
• Example : Aol= 100000 , B<1

• The closed-loop gain can be set by selecting values of Ri

and Rf

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Numerical

Practice problem: Find Ri to get gain as 30 with the same value of Rf.
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 Voltage-Follower
• The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input
by a straight connection, as shown in Figure.
• The straight feedback connection has a voltage gain of 1 (which means
there is no gain).
• Since B = 1 for a voltage-follower, the closed-loop voltage gain of the
voltage-follower is 1/B

Acl(VF) = 1

• The most important features of the voltage-follower

configuration are its very high input impedance and
its very low output impedance.

• These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier

for interfacing high-impedance sources and low-
impedance loads.
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 Virtual short and Virtual ground
• Voltage between inverting and non-inverting terminals of OP-
AMP is output voltage divided by open loop gain of OP-AMP.
• Open loop gain being very large, this voltage is very small.
Practically zero. This is virtual short.

• Both input terminals will be at the same potential. In other words

they are virtually shorted to each other.

• Virtual ground concept is NOT valid for positive feedback or open

loop operation of OPAMP.
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Virtual Ground
• If the non-inverting (+) terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground, then
due to the "virtual short" existing between the two input terminals, the
inverting (-) terminal also be at ground potential. hence it is said to be as
"virtual ground".
• The input impedance (Ri) of an OP-AMP is ideally infinite. Hence current
"I" flowing from one input terminal to the other will be zero.

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Inverting Amplifier
• An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier with a
controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure
• The input signal is applied through a series input resistor Ri to
the inverting (-) input.
• Also, the output is fed back through Rf to the same input. The
noninverting (+) input is grounded.

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Inverting Amplifier
• Since there is no current at the inverting input, the current
through Ri and the current through Rf are equal, as shown in
Figure
Iin = If

FIGURE: Virtual ground concept and closed loop voltage gain

development for the inverting amplifier. 72
Inverting Amplifier

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The closed-loop gain is independent of the op-amp’s internal open-loop gain.
Numerical

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Exercise

Acl = -12.5

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 Exercise
Determine closed loop gain of each amplifier

Ans. 11 101 47.8 23

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Exercise
Find Rf Value for the each op amp.

Ans. 49K 3M 84K 165K

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Exercise
If signal voltage is 10mVrms, find the output voltage.

Ans. a)10mVrms, in phase b) -10mVrms,out of phase

c) 223 mVrms, in phase d) -100 mVrms, out of phase

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Exercise
In the circuit given below, if R2 = 1 K & R1= 10 K & input in 0.1V
what will be the output

Ans. Acl = - R1/R2 = 10

Vout = Vin * Acl
Vou = -1V, out of phase
 

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Exercise
Calculate the input voltage for this circuit if Vo = –11 V.

Ans. Vin = 1.1 V

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Exercise

An OP-AMP is used in inverting mode with R1= 1K Ω and RF = 15KΩ.

Vcc = +/- 15V. Calculate the output voltage for i) Vi= 150 mV ii) Vi= 1V

Solution:

A= -RF/R1= -(15 KΩ / 1KΩ) = -15

i) Vi= 150 mV
Vo= (-15 × 150 mV) = -0.225V

ii) Vi= 1V
Vo= (-15 × 1V) = -15V

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THANK YOU

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